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-rw-r--r--nixos/doc/manual/configuration/profiles.chapter.md1
-rw-r--r--nixos/doc/manual/configuration/profiles/perlless.section.md11
-rw-r--r--nixos/doc/manual/configuration/user-mgmt.chapter.md15
-rw-r--r--nixos/doc/manual/development/etc-overlay.section.md36
-rw-r--r--nixos/doc/manual/development/what-happens-during-a-system-switch.chapter.md1
-rw-r--r--nixos/doc/manual/release-notes/rl-2405.section.md18
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/config/shells-environment.nix3
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/config/users-groups.nix10
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/module-list.nix2
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/profiles/perlless.nix31
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/programs/ssh.nix1
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/continuous-integration/buildbot/master.nix3
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/continuous-integration/github-runner/options.nix1
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/mail/dovecot.nix5
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/misc/moonraker.nix2
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/misc/ollama.nix8
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/misc/taskserver/helper-tool.py34
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/networking/bird.nix9
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/security/clamav.nix2
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/system/cloud-init.nix5
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/system/dbus.nix1
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/web-apps/nextcloud.nix211
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/web-servers/ttyd.nix3
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/system/boot/resolved.nix24
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/system/boot/systemd/sysusers.nix169
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/system/boot/uki.nix85
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/system/etc/build-composefs-dump.py209
-rwxr-xr-xnixos/modules/system/etc/check-build-composefs-dump.sh8
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/system/etc/etc-activation.nix98
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/system/etc/etc.nix116
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/tasks/auto-upgrade.nix12
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/testing/test-instrumentation.nix5
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/activation/etc-overlay-immutable.nix30
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/activation/etc-overlay-mutable.nix30
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/activation/perlless.nix24
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/all-tests.nix6
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/appliance-repart-image.nix23
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/cloud-init.nix1
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/elk.nix6
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/miriway.nix2
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/systemd-sysusers-immutable.nix64
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/systemd-sysusers-mutable.nix71
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/web-servers/stargazer.nix108
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/web-servers/ttyd.nix19
44 files changed, 1352 insertions, 171 deletions
diff --git a/nixos/doc/manual/configuration/profiles.chapter.md b/nixos/doc/manual/configuration/profiles.chapter.md
index 9f1f48f742ac5..9f6c11b0d59d5 100644
--- a/nixos/doc/manual/configuration/profiles.chapter.md
+++ b/nixos/doc/manual/configuration/profiles.chapter.md
@@ -29,6 +29,7 @@ profiles/graphical.section.md
 profiles/hardened.section.md
 profiles/headless.section.md
 profiles/installation-device.section.md
+profiles/perlless.section.md
 profiles/minimal.section.md
 profiles/qemu-guest.section.md
 ```
diff --git a/nixos/doc/manual/configuration/profiles/perlless.section.md b/nixos/doc/manual/configuration/profiles/perlless.section.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..bf055971cfc42
--- /dev/null
+++ b/nixos/doc/manual/configuration/profiles/perlless.section.md
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+# Perlless {#sec-perlless}
+
+::: {.warning}
+If you enable this profile, you will NOT be able to switch to a new
+configuration and thus you will not be able to rebuild your system with
+nixos-rebuild!
+:::
+
+Render your system completely perlless (i.e. without the perl interpreter). This
+includes a mechanism so that your build fails if it contains a Nix store path
+that references the string "perl".
diff --git a/nixos/doc/manual/configuration/user-mgmt.chapter.md b/nixos/doc/manual/configuration/user-mgmt.chapter.md
index b35b38f6e964a..71d61ce4c641b 100644
--- a/nixos/doc/manual/configuration/user-mgmt.chapter.md
+++ b/nixos/doc/manual/configuration/user-mgmt.chapter.md
@@ -89,3 +89,18 @@ A user can be deleted using `userdel`:
 The flag `-r` deletes the user's home directory. Accounts can be
 modified using `usermod`. Unix groups can be managed using `groupadd`,
 `groupmod` and `groupdel`.
+
+## Create users and groups with `systemd-sysusers` {#sec-systemd-sysusers}
+
+::: {.note}
+This is experimental.
+:::
+
+Instead of using a custom perl script to create users and groups, you can use
+systemd-sysusers:
+
+```nix
+systemd.sysusers.enable = true;
+```
+
+The primary benefit of this is to remove a dependency on perl.
diff --git a/nixos/doc/manual/development/etc-overlay.section.md b/nixos/doc/manual/development/etc-overlay.section.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..e6f6d8d4ca1ef
--- /dev/null
+++ b/nixos/doc/manual/development/etc-overlay.section.md
@@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
+# `/etc` via overlay filesystem {#sec-etc-overlay}
+
+::: {.note}
+This is experimental and requires a kernel version >= 6.6 because it uses
+new overlay features and relies on the new mount API.
+:::
+
+Instead of using a custom perl script to activate `/etc`, you activate it via an
+overlay filesystem:
+
+```nix
+system.etc.overlay.enable = true;
+```
+
+Using an overlay has two benefits:
+
+1. it removes a dependency on perl
+2. it makes activation faster (up to a few seconds)
+
+By default, the `/etc` overlay is mounted writable (i.e. there is a writable
+upper layer). However, you can also mount `/etc` immutably (i.e. read-only) by
+setting:
+
+```nix
+system.etc.overlay.mutable = false;
+```
+
+The overlay is atomically replaced during system switch. However, files that
+have been modified will NOT be overwritten. This is the biggest change compared
+to the perl-based system.
+
+If you manually make changes to `/etc` on your system and then switch to a new
+configuration where `system.etc.overlay.mutable = false;`, you will not be able
+to see the previously made changes in `/etc` anymore. However the changes are
+not completely gone, they are still in the upperdir of the previous overlay in
+`/.rw-etc/upper`.
diff --git a/nixos/doc/manual/development/what-happens-during-a-system-switch.chapter.md b/nixos/doc/manual/development/what-happens-during-a-system-switch.chapter.md
index 5d17a9c98514c..28c06f999dac2 100644
--- a/nixos/doc/manual/development/what-happens-during-a-system-switch.chapter.md
+++ b/nixos/doc/manual/development/what-happens-during-a-system-switch.chapter.md
@@ -56,4 +56,5 @@ explained in the next sections.
 unit-handling.section.md
 activation-script.section.md
 non-switchable-systems.section.md
+etc-overlay.section.md
 ```
diff --git a/nixos/doc/manual/release-notes/rl-2405.section.md b/nixos/doc/manual/release-notes/rl-2405.section.md
index 6475239d4cd11..790b54fdd4ccf 100644
--- a/nixos/doc/manual/release-notes/rl-2405.section.md
+++ b/nixos/doc/manual/release-notes/rl-2405.section.md
@@ -18,6 +18,22 @@ In addition to numerous new and upgraded packages, this release has the followin
 
 - Julia environments can now be built with arbitrary packages from the ecosystem using the `.withPackages` function. For example: `julia.withPackages ["Plots"]`.
 
+- A new option `systemd.sysusers.enable` was added. If enabled, users and
+  groups are created with systemd-sysusers instead of with a custom perl script.
+
+- A new option `system.etc.overlay.enable` was added. If enabled, `/etc` is
+  mounted via an overlayfs instead of being created by a custom perl script.
+
+- It is now possible to have a completely perlless system (i.e. a system
+  without perl). Previously, the NixOS activation depended on two perl scripts
+  which can now be replaced via an opt-in mechanism. To make your system
+  perlless, you can use the new perlless profile:
+  ```
+  { modulesPath, ... }: {
+    imports = [ "${modulesPath}/profiles/perlless.nix" ];
+  }
+  ```
+
 ## New Services {#sec-release-24.05-new-services}
 
 <!-- To avoid merge conflicts, consider adding your item at an arbitrary place in the list instead. -->
@@ -211,6 +227,8 @@ The pre-existing [services.ankisyncd](#opt-services.ankisyncd.enable) has been m
 - `services.zfs.zed.enableMail` now uses the global `sendmail` wrapper defined by an email module
   (such as msmtp or Postfix). It no longer requires using a special ZFS build with email support.
 
+- `nextcloud-setup.service` no longer changes the group of each file & directory inside `/var/lib/nextcloud/{config,data,store-apps}` if one of these directories has the wrong owner group. This was part of transitioning the group used for `/var/lib/nextcloud`, but isn't necessary anymore.
+
 - The `krb5` module has been rewritten and moved to `security.krb5`, moving all options but `security.krb5.enable` and `security.krb5.package` into `security.krb5.settings`.
 
 - Gitea 1.21 upgrade has several breaking changes, including:
diff --git a/nixos/modules/config/shells-environment.nix b/nixos/modules/config/shells-environment.nix
index bc6583442edf2..a8476bd2aaedd 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/config/shells-environment.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/config/shells-environment.nix
@@ -214,7 +214,8 @@ in
       ''
         # Create the required /bin/sh symlink; otherwise lots of things
         # (notably the system() function) won't work.
-        mkdir -m 0755 -p /bin
+        mkdir -p /bin
+        chmod 0755 /bin
         ln -sfn "${cfg.binsh}" /bin/.sh.tmp
         mv /bin/.sh.tmp /bin/sh # atomically replace /bin/sh
       '';
diff --git a/nixos/modules/config/users-groups.nix b/nixos/modules/config/users-groups.nix
index 2aed620eb154c..967ad0846d75b 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/config/users-groups.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/config/users-groups.nix
@@ -685,7 +685,7 @@ in {
       shadow.gid = ids.gids.shadow;
     };
 
-    system.activationScripts.users = {
+    system.activationScripts.users = if !config.systemd.sysusers.enable then {
       supportsDryActivation = true;
       text = ''
         install -m 0700 -d /root
@@ -694,7 +694,7 @@ in {
         ${pkgs.perl.withPackages (p: [ p.FileSlurp p.JSON ])}/bin/perl \
         -w ${./update-users-groups.pl} ${spec}
       '';
-    };
+    } else ""; # keep around for backwards compatibility
 
     system.activationScripts.update-lingering = let
       lingerDir = "/var/lib/systemd/linger";
@@ -711,7 +711,9 @@ in {
     '';
 
     # Warn about user accounts with deprecated password hashing schemes
-    system.activationScripts.hashes = {
+    # This does not work when the users and groups are created by
+    # systemd-sysusers because the users are created too late then.
+    system.activationScripts.hashes = if !config.systemd.sysusers.enable then {
       deps = [ "users" ];
       text = ''
         users=()
@@ -729,7 +731,7 @@ in {
           printf ' - %s\n' "''${users[@]}"
         fi
       '';
-    };
+    } else ""; # keep around for backwards compatibility
 
     # for backwards compatibility
     system.activationScripts.groups = stringAfter [ "users" ] "";
diff --git a/nixos/modules/module-list.nix b/nixos/modules/module-list.nix
index 00e6240f531d5..d8a2e064cfc1d 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/module-list.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/module-list.nix
@@ -1468,6 +1468,7 @@
   ./system/boot/stratisroot.nix
   ./system/boot/modprobe.nix
   ./system/boot/networkd.nix
+  ./system/boot/uki.nix
   ./system/boot/unl0kr.nix
   ./system/boot/plymouth.nix
   ./system/boot/resolved.nix
@@ -1488,6 +1489,7 @@
   ./system/boot/systemd/repart.nix
   ./system/boot/systemd/shutdown.nix
   ./system/boot/systemd/sysupdate.nix
+  ./system/boot/systemd/sysusers.nix
   ./system/boot/systemd/tmpfiles.nix
   ./system/boot/systemd/user.nix
   ./system/boot/systemd/userdbd.nix
diff --git a/nixos/modules/profiles/perlless.nix b/nixos/modules/profiles/perlless.nix
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..90abd14f077e4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/nixos/modules/profiles/perlless.nix
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+# WARNING: If you enable this profile, you will NOT be able to switch to a new
+# configuration and thus you will not be able to rebuild your system with
+# nixos-rebuild!
+
+{ lib, ... }:
+
+{
+
+  # Disable switching to a new configuration. This is not a necessary
+  # limitation of a perlless system but just a current one. In the future,
+  # perlless switching might be possible.
+  system.switch.enable = lib.mkDefault false;
+
+  # Remove perl from activation
+  boot.initrd.systemd.enable = lib.mkDefault true;
+  system.etc.overlay.enable = lib.mkDefault true;
+  systemd.sysusers.enable = lib.mkDefault true;
+
+  # Random perl remnants
+  system.disableInstallerTools = lib.mkDefault true;
+  programs.less.lessopen = lib.mkDefault null;
+  programs.command-not-found.enable = lib.mkDefault false;
+  boot.enableContainers = lib.mkDefault false;
+  environment.defaultPackages = lib.mkDefault [ ];
+  documentation.info.enable = lib.mkDefault false;
+
+  # Check that the system does not contain a Nix store path that contains the
+  # string "perl".
+  system.forbiddenDependenciesRegex = "perl";
+
+}
diff --git a/nixos/modules/programs/ssh.nix b/nixos/modules/programs/ssh.nix
index c39a3c8d509be..0c1461709c22b 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/programs/ssh.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/programs/ssh.nix
@@ -12,6 +12,7 @@ let
     ''
       #! ${pkgs.runtimeShell} -e
       export DISPLAY="$(systemctl --user show-environment | ${pkgs.gnused}/bin/sed 's/^DISPLAY=\(.*\)/\1/; t; d')"
+      export XAUTHORITY="$(systemctl --user show-environment | ${pkgs.gnused}/bin/sed 's/^XAUTHORITY=\(.*\)/\1/; t; d')"
       export WAYLAND_DISPLAY="$(systemctl --user show-environment | ${pkgs.gnused}/bin/sed 's/^WAYLAND_DISPLAY=\(.*\)/\1/; t; d')"
       exec ${cfg.askPassword} "$@"
     '';
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/continuous-integration/buildbot/master.nix b/nixos/modules/services/continuous-integration/buildbot/master.nix
index c86cb81e5df47..9f702b17937cf 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/services/continuous-integration/buildbot/master.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/continuous-integration/buildbot/master.nix
@@ -267,8 +267,7 @@ in {
 
     systemd.services.buildbot-master = {
       description = "Buildbot Continuous Integration Server.";
-      after = [ "network-online.target" ];
-      wants = [ "network-online.target" ];
+      after = [ "network.target" ];
       wantedBy = [ "multi-user.target" ];
       path = cfg.packages ++ cfg.pythonPackages python.pkgs;
       environment.PYTHONPATH = "${python.withPackages (self: cfg.pythonPackages self ++ [ package ])}/${python.sitePackages}";
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/continuous-integration/github-runner/options.nix b/nixos/modules/services/continuous-integration/github-runner/options.nix
index 2335826e8b665..b9b1ea05e9672 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/services/continuous-integration/github-runner/options.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/continuous-integration/github-runner/options.nix
@@ -153,6 +153,7 @@ with lib;
     type = types.attrs;
     description = lib.mdDoc ''
       Modify the systemd service. Can be used to, e.g., adjust the sandboxing options.
+      See {manpage}`systemd.exec(5)` for more options.
     '';
     example = {
       ProtectHome = false;
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/mail/dovecot.nix b/nixos/modules/services/mail/dovecot.nix
index 25c7017a1d258..79c8fec752521 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/services/mail/dovecot.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/mail/dovecot.nix
@@ -119,9 +119,10 @@ let
     ''
       plugin {
         sieve_plugins = ${concatStringsSep " " cfg.sieve.plugins}
-        sieve_extensions = ${concatStringsSep " " (map (el: "+${el}") cfg.sieve.extensions)}
-        sieve_global_extensions = ${concatStringsSep " " (map (el: "+${el}") cfg.sieve.globalExtensions)}
     ''
+    (optionalString (cfg.sieve.extensions != []) ''sieve_extensions = ${concatMapStringsSep " " (el: "+${el}") cfg.sieve.extensions}'')
+    (optionalString (cfg.sieve.globalExtensions != []) ''sieve_global_extensions = ${concatMapStringsSep " " (el: "+${el}") cfg.sieve.globalExtensions}'')
+
     (optionalString (cfg.imapsieve.mailbox != []) ''
       ${
         concatStringsSep "\n" (flatten (imap1 (
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/misc/moonraker.nix b/nixos/modules/services/misc/moonraker.nix
index 750dca9d03736..4e419aafa990b 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/services/misc/moonraker.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/misc/moonraker.nix
@@ -103,7 +103,7 @@ in {
 
   config = mkIf cfg.enable {
     warnings = []
-      ++ optional (cfg.settings ? update_manager)
+      ++ optional (cfg.settings.update_manager.enable_system_updates or false)
         ''Enabling update_manager is not supported on NixOS and will lead to non-removable warnings in some clients.''
       ++ optional (cfg.configDir != null)
         ''
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/misc/ollama.nix b/nixos/modules/services/misc/ollama.nix
index 9794bbbec464c..d9359d2b5cd44 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/services/misc/ollama.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/misc/ollama.nix
@@ -9,6 +9,13 @@ in {
       enable = lib.mkEnableOption (
         lib.mdDoc "Server for local large language models"
       );
+      listenAddress = lib.mkOption {
+        type = lib.types.str;
+        default = "127.0.0.1:11434";
+        description = lib.mdDoc ''
+          Specifies the bind address on which the ollama server HTTP interface listens.
+        '';
+      };
       package = lib.mkPackageOption pkgs "ollama" { };
     };
   };
@@ -23,6 +30,7 @@ in {
         environment = {
           HOME = "%S/ollama";
           OLLAMA_MODELS = "%S/ollama/models";
+          OLLAMA_HOST = cfg.listenAddress;
         };
         serviceConfig = {
           ExecStart = "${lib.getExe cfg.package} serve";
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/misc/taskserver/helper-tool.py b/nixos/modules/services/misc/taskserver/helper-tool.py
index fec05728b2b6b..b1eebb07686b2 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/services/misc/taskserver/helper-tool.py
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/misc/taskserver/helper-tool.py
@@ -61,6 +61,10 @@ def run_as_taskd_user():
     os.setuid(uid)
 
 
+def run_as_taskd_group():
+    gid = grp.getgrnam(TASKD_GROUP).gr_gid
+    os.setgid(gid)
+
 def taskd_cmd(cmd, *args, **kwargs):
     """
     Invoke taskd with the specified command with the privileges of the 'taskd'
@@ -90,7 +94,7 @@ def certtool_cmd(*args, **kwargs):
     """
     return subprocess.check_output(
         [CERTTOOL_COMMAND] + list(args),
-        preexec_fn=lambda: os.umask(0o077),
+        preexec_fn=run_as_taskd_group,
         stderr=subprocess.STDOUT,
         **kwargs
     )
@@ -156,17 +160,33 @@ def generate_key(org, user):
         sys.stderr.write(msg.format(user))
         return
 
-    basedir = os.path.join(TASKD_DATA_DIR, "keys", org, user)
-    if os.path.exists(basedir):
+    keysdir = os.path.join(TASKD_DATA_DIR, "keys" )
+    orgdir  = os.path.join(keysdir       , org    )
+    userdir = os.path.join(orgdir        , user   )
+    if os.path.exists(userdir):
         raise OSError("Keyfile directory for {} already exists.".format(user))
 
-    privkey = os.path.join(basedir, "private.key")
-    pubcert = os.path.join(basedir, "public.cert")
+    privkey = os.path.join(userdir, "private.key")
+    pubcert = os.path.join(userdir, "public.cert")
 
     try:
-        os.makedirs(basedir, mode=0o700)
+        # We change the permissions and the owner ship of the base directories
+        # so that cfg.group and cfg.user could read the directories' contents.
+        # See also: https://bugs.python.org/issue42367
+        for bd in [keysdir, orgdir, userdir]:
+            # Allow cfg.group, but not others to read the contents of this group
+            os.makedirs(bd, exist_ok=True)
+            # not using mode= argument to makedirs intentionally - forcing the
+            # permissions we want
+            os.chmod(bd, mode=0o750)
+            os.chown(
+                bd,
+                uid=pwd.getpwnam(TASKD_USER).pw_uid,
+                gid=grp.getgrnam(TASKD_GROUP).gr_gid,
+            )
 
         certtool_cmd("-p", "--bits", CERT_BITS, "--outfile", privkey)
+        os.chmod(privkey, 0o640)
 
         template_data = [
             "organization = {0}".format(org),
@@ -187,7 +207,7 @@ def generate_key(org, user):
                 "--outfile", pubcert
             )
     except:
-        rmtree(basedir)
+        rmtree(userdir)
         raise
 
 
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/networking/bird.nix b/nixos/modules/services/networking/bird.nix
index 9deeb7694d2ac..e25f5c7b03794 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/services/networking/bird.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/networking/bird.nix
@@ -18,6 +18,13 @@ in
           <http://bird.network.cz/>
         '';
       };
+      autoReload = mkOption {
+        type = types.bool;
+        default = true;
+        description = lib.mdDoc ''
+          Whether bird2 should be automatically reloaded when the configuration changes.
+        '';
+      };
       checkConfig = mkOption {
         type = types.bool;
         default = true;
@@ -68,7 +75,7 @@ in
     systemd.services.bird2 = {
       description = "BIRD Internet Routing Daemon";
       wantedBy = [ "multi-user.target" ];
-      reloadTriggers = [ config.environment.etc."bird/bird2.conf".source ];
+      reloadTriggers = lib.optional cfg.autoReload config.environment.etc."bird/bird2.conf".source;
       serviceConfig = {
         Type = "forking";
         Restart = "on-failure";
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/security/clamav.nix b/nixos/modules/services/security/clamav.nix
index d3164373ec01f..4480c0cae60c9 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/services/security/clamav.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/security/clamav.nix
@@ -196,6 +196,7 @@ in
     systemd.services.clamav-freshclam = mkIf cfg.updater.enable {
       description = "ClamAV virus database updater (freshclam)";
       restartTriggers = [ freshclamConfigFile ];
+      requires = [ "network-online.target" ];
       after = [ "network-online.target" ];
 
       serviceConfig = {
@@ -243,6 +244,7 @@ in
     systemd.services.clamav-fangfrisch = mkIf cfg.fangfrisch.enable {
       description = "ClamAV virus database updater (fangfrisch)";
       restartTriggers = [ fangfrischConfigFile ];
+      requires = [ "network-online.target" ];
       after = [ "network-online.target" "clamav-fangfrisch-init.service" ];
 
       serviceConfig = {
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/system/cloud-init.nix b/nixos/modules/services/system/cloud-init.nix
index d782bb1a36668..00ae77be4271c 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/services/system/cloud-init.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/system/cloud-init.nix
@@ -164,7 +164,10 @@ in
     systemd.services.cloud-init-local = {
       description = "Initial cloud-init job (pre-networking)";
       wantedBy = [ "multi-user.target" ];
-      before = [ "systemd-networkd.service" ];
+      # In certain environments (AWS for example), cloud-init-local will
+      # first configure an IP through DHCP, and later delete it.
+      # This can cause race conditions with anything else trying to set IP through DHCP.
+      before = [ "systemd-networkd.service" "dhcpcd.service" ];
       path = path;
       serviceConfig = {
         Type = "oneshot";
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/system/dbus.nix b/nixos/modules/services/system/dbus.nix
index b47ebc92f93a8..e8f8b48d0337f 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/services/system/dbus.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/system/dbus.nix
@@ -95,6 +95,7 @@ in
         uid = config.ids.uids.messagebus;
         description = "D-Bus system message bus daemon user";
         home = homeDir;
+        homeMode = "0755";
         group = "messagebus";
       };
 
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/web-apps/nextcloud.nix b/nixos/modules/services/web-apps/nextcloud.nix
index 38c51251aac1f..0b19265942c03 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/services/web-apps/nextcloud.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/web-apps/nextcloud.nix
@@ -99,11 +99,101 @@ let
   mysqlLocal = cfg.database.createLocally && cfg.config.dbtype == "mysql";
   pgsqlLocal = cfg.database.createLocally && cfg.config.dbtype == "pgsql";
 
+  nextcloudGreaterOrEqualThan = versionAtLeast cfg.package.version;
+  nextcloudOlderThan = versionOlder cfg.package.version;
+
   # https://github.com/nextcloud/documentation/pull/11179
-  ocmProviderIsNotAStaticDirAnymore = versionAtLeast cfg.package.version "27.1.2"
-    || (versionOlder cfg.package.version "27.0.0"
-      && versionAtLeast cfg.package.version "26.0.8");
+  ocmProviderIsNotAStaticDirAnymore = nextcloudGreaterOrEqualThan "27.1.2"
+    || (nextcloudOlderThan "27.0.0" && nextcloudGreaterOrEqualThan "26.0.8");
+
+  overrideConfig = let
+    c = cfg.config;
+    requiresReadSecretFunction = c.dbpassFile != null || c.objectstore.s3.enable;
+    objectstoreConfig = let s3 = c.objectstore.s3; in optionalString s3.enable ''
+      'objectstore' => [
+        'class' => '\\OC\\Files\\ObjectStore\\S3',
+        'arguments' => [
+          'bucket' => '${s3.bucket}',
+          'autocreate' => ${boolToString s3.autocreate},
+          'key' => '${s3.key}',
+          'secret' => nix_read_secret('${s3.secretFile}'),
+          ${optionalString (s3.hostname != null) "'hostname' => '${s3.hostname}',"}
+          ${optionalString (s3.port != null) "'port' => ${toString s3.port},"}
+          'use_ssl' => ${boolToString s3.useSsl},
+          ${optionalString (s3.region != null) "'region' => '${s3.region}',"}
+          'use_path_style' => ${boolToString s3.usePathStyle},
+          ${optionalString (s3.sseCKeyFile != null) "'sse_c_key' => nix_read_secret('${s3.sseCKeyFile}'),"}
+        ],
+      ]
+    '';
+    showAppStoreSetting = cfg.appstoreEnable != null || cfg.extraApps != {};
+    renderedAppStoreSetting =
+      let
+        x = cfg.appstoreEnable;
+      in
+        if x == null then "false"
+        else boolToString x;
+    mkAppStoreConfig = name: { enabled, writable, ... }: optionalString enabled ''
+      [ 'path' => '${webroot}/${name}', 'url' => '/${name}', 'writable' => ${boolToString writable} ],
+    '';
+  in pkgs.writeText "nextcloud-config.php" ''
+    <?php
+    ${optionalString requiresReadSecretFunction ''
+      function nix_read_secret($file) {
+        if (!file_exists($file)) {
+          throw new \RuntimeException(sprintf(
+            "Cannot start Nextcloud, secret file %s set by NixOS doesn't seem to "
+            . "exist! Please make sure that the file exists and has appropriate "
+            . "permissions for user & group 'nextcloud'!",
+            $file
+          ));
+        }
+        return trim(file_get_contents($file));
+      }''}
+    function nix_decode_json_file($file, $error) {
+      if (!file_exists($file)) {
+        throw new \RuntimeException(sprintf($error, $file));
+      }
+      $decoded = json_decode(file_get_contents($file), true);
+
+      if (json_last_error() !== JSON_ERROR_NONE) {
+        throw new \RuntimeException(sprintf("Cannot decode %s, because: %s", $file, json_last_error_msg()));
+      }
 
+      return $decoded;
+    }
+    $CONFIG = [
+      'apps_paths' => [
+        ${concatStrings (mapAttrsToList mkAppStoreConfig appStores)}
+      ],
+      ${optionalString (showAppStoreSetting) "'appstoreenabled' => ${renderedAppStoreSetting},"}
+      ${optionalString cfg.caching.apcu "'memcache.local' => '\\OC\\Memcache\\APCu',"}
+      ${optionalString (c.dbname != null) "'dbname' => '${c.dbname}',"}
+      ${optionalString (c.dbhost != null) "'dbhost' => '${c.dbhost}',"}
+      ${optionalString (c.dbuser != null) "'dbuser' => '${c.dbuser}',"}
+      ${optionalString (c.dbtableprefix != null) "'dbtableprefix' => '${toString c.dbtableprefix}',"}
+      ${optionalString (c.dbpassFile != null) ''
+          'dbpassword' => nix_read_secret(
+            "${c.dbpassFile}"
+          ),
+        ''
+      }
+      'dbtype' => '${c.dbtype}',
+      ${objectstoreConfig}
+    ];
+
+    $CONFIG = array_replace_recursive($CONFIG, nix_decode_json_file(
+      "${jsonFormat.generate "nextcloud-extraOptions.json" cfg.extraOptions}",
+      "impossible: this should never happen (decoding generated extraOptions file %s failed)"
+    ));
+
+    ${optionalString (cfg.secretFile != null) ''
+      $CONFIG = array_replace_recursive($CONFIG, nix_decode_json_file(
+        "${cfg.secretFile}",
+        "Cannot start Nextcloud, secrets file %s set by NixOS doesn't exist!"
+      ));
+    ''}
+  '';
 in {
 
   imports = [
@@ -787,107 +877,23 @@ in {
         timerConfig.Unit = "nextcloud-cron.service";
       };
 
-      systemd.tmpfiles.rules = ["d ${cfg.home} 0750 nextcloud nextcloud"];
+      systemd.tmpfiles.rules = map (dir: "d ${dir} 0750 nextcloud nextcloud - -") [
+        "${cfg.home}"
+        "${datadir}/config"
+        "${datadir}/data"
+        "${cfg.home}/store-apps"
+      ] ++ [
+        "L+ ${datadir}/config/override.config.php - - - - ${overrideConfig}"
+      ];
 
       systemd.services = {
         # When upgrading the Nextcloud package, Nextcloud can report errors such as
         # "The files of the app [all apps in /var/lib/nextcloud/apps] were not replaced correctly"
         # Restarting phpfpm on Nextcloud package update fixes these issues (but this is a workaround).
-        phpfpm-nextcloud.restartTriggers = [ webroot ];
+        phpfpm-nextcloud.restartTriggers = [ webroot overrideConfig ];
 
         nextcloud-setup = let
           c = cfg.config;
-          requiresReadSecretFunction = c.dbpassFile != null || c.objectstore.s3.enable;
-          objectstoreConfig = let s3 = c.objectstore.s3; in optionalString s3.enable ''
-            'objectstore' => [
-              'class' => '\\OC\\Files\\ObjectStore\\S3',
-              'arguments' => [
-                'bucket' => '${s3.bucket}',
-                'autocreate' => ${boolToString s3.autocreate},
-                'key' => '${s3.key}',
-                'secret' => nix_read_secret('${s3.secretFile}'),
-                ${optionalString (s3.hostname != null) "'hostname' => '${s3.hostname}',"}
-                ${optionalString (s3.port != null) "'port' => ${toString s3.port},"}
-                'use_ssl' => ${boolToString s3.useSsl},
-                ${optionalString (s3.region != null) "'region' => '${s3.region}',"}
-                'use_path_style' => ${boolToString s3.usePathStyle},
-                ${optionalString (s3.sseCKeyFile != null) "'sse_c_key' => nix_read_secret('${s3.sseCKeyFile}'),"}
-              ],
-            ]
-          '';
-
-          showAppStoreSetting = cfg.appstoreEnable != null || cfg.extraApps != {};
-          renderedAppStoreSetting =
-            let
-              x = cfg.appstoreEnable;
-            in
-              if x == null then "false"
-              else boolToString x;
-
-          nextcloudGreaterOrEqualThan = req: versionAtLeast cfg.package.version req;
-
-          mkAppStoreConfig = name: { enabled, writable, ... }: optionalString enabled ''
-            [ 'path' => '${webroot}/${name}', 'url' => '/${name}', 'writable' => ${boolToString writable} ],
-          '';
-
-          overrideConfig = pkgs.writeText "nextcloud-config.php" ''
-            <?php
-            ${optionalString requiresReadSecretFunction ''
-              function nix_read_secret($file) {
-                if (!file_exists($file)) {
-                  throw new \RuntimeException(sprintf(
-                    "Cannot start Nextcloud, secret file %s set by NixOS doesn't seem to "
-                    . "exist! Please make sure that the file exists and has appropriate "
-                    . "permissions for user & group 'nextcloud'!",
-                    $file
-                  ));
-                }
-                return trim(file_get_contents($file));
-              }''}
-            function nix_decode_json_file($file, $error) {
-              if (!file_exists($file)) {
-                throw new \RuntimeException(sprintf($error, $file));
-              }
-              $decoded = json_decode(file_get_contents($file), true);
-
-              if (json_last_error() !== JSON_ERROR_NONE) {
-                throw new \RuntimeException(sprintf("Cannot decode %s, because: %s", $file, json_last_error_msg()));
-              }
-
-              return $decoded;
-            }
-            $CONFIG = [
-              'apps_paths' => [
-                ${concatStrings (mapAttrsToList mkAppStoreConfig appStores)}
-              ],
-              ${optionalString (showAppStoreSetting) "'appstoreenabled' => ${renderedAppStoreSetting},"}
-              ${optionalString cfg.caching.apcu "'memcache.local' => '\\OC\\Memcache\\APCu',"}
-              ${optionalString (c.dbname != null) "'dbname' => '${c.dbname}',"}
-              ${optionalString (c.dbhost != null) "'dbhost' => '${c.dbhost}',"}
-              ${optionalString (c.dbuser != null) "'dbuser' => '${c.dbuser}',"}
-              ${optionalString (c.dbtableprefix != null) "'dbtableprefix' => '${toString c.dbtableprefix}',"}
-              ${optionalString (c.dbpassFile != null) ''
-                  'dbpassword' => nix_read_secret(
-                    "${c.dbpassFile}"
-                  ),
-                ''
-              }
-              'dbtype' => '${c.dbtype}',
-              ${objectstoreConfig}
-            ];
-
-            $CONFIG = array_replace_recursive($CONFIG, nix_decode_json_file(
-              "${jsonFormat.generate "nextcloud-extraOptions.json" cfg.extraOptions}",
-              "impossible: this should never happen (decoding generated extraOptions file %s failed)"
-            ));
-
-            ${optionalString (cfg.secretFile != null) ''
-              $CONFIG = array_replace_recursive($CONFIG, nix_decode_json_file(
-                "${cfg.secretFile}",
-                "Cannot start Nextcloud, secrets file %s set by NixOS doesn't exist!"
-              ));
-            ''}
-          '';
           occInstallCmd = let
             mkExport = { arg, value }: "export ${arg}=${value}";
             dbpass = {
@@ -932,6 +938,7 @@ in {
           after = optional mysqlLocal "mysql.service" ++ optional pgsqlLocal "postgresql.service";
           requires = optional mysqlLocal "mysql.service" ++ optional pgsqlLocal "postgresql.service";
           path = [ occ ];
+          restartTriggers = [ overrideConfig ];
           script = ''
             ${optionalString (c.dbpassFile != null) ''
               if [ ! -r "${c.dbpassFile}" ]; then
@@ -959,18 +966,6 @@ in {
               fi
             '') [ "nix-apps" "apps" ]}
 
-            # create nextcloud directories.
-            # if the directories exist already with wrong permissions, we fix that
-            for dir in ${datadir}/config ${datadir}/data ${cfg.home}/store-apps; do
-              if [ ! -e $dir ]; then
-                install -o nextcloud -g nextcloud -d $dir
-              elif [ $(stat -c "%G" $dir) != "nextcloud" ]; then
-                chgrp -R nextcloud $dir
-              fi
-            done
-
-            ln -sf ${overrideConfig} ${datadir}/config/override.config.php
-
             # Do not install if already installed
             if [[ ! -e ${datadir}/config/config.php ]]; then
               ${occInstallCmd}
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/web-servers/ttyd.nix b/nixos/modules/services/web-servers/ttyd.nix
index 3b1d87ccb483e..e545869ca4320 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/services/web-servers/ttyd.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/web-servers/ttyd.nix
@@ -180,10 +180,11 @@ in
         # Runs login which needs to be run as root
         # login: Cannot possibly work without effective root
         User = "root";
+        LoadCredential = lib.optionalString (cfg.passwordFile != null) "TTYD_PASSWORD_FILE:${cfg.passwordFile}";
       };
 
       script = if cfg.passwordFile != null then ''
-        PASSWORD=$(cat ${escapeShellArg cfg.passwordFile})
+        PASSWORD=$(cat "$CREDENTIALS_DIRECTORY/TTYD_PASSWORD_FILE")
         ${pkgs.ttyd}/bin/ttyd ${lib.escapeShellArgs args} \
           --credential ${escapeShellArg cfg.username}:"$PASSWORD" \
           ${pkgs.shadow}/bin/login
diff --git a/nixos/modules/system/boot/resolved.nix b/nixos/modules/system/boot/resolved.nix
index 538f71cc0b9ae..c42c88163c564 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/system/boot/resolved.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/system/boot/resolved.nix
@@ -95,6 +95,29 @@ in
       '';
     };
 
+    services.resolved.dnsovertls = mkOption {
+      default = "false";
+      example = "true";
+      type = types.enum [ "true" "opportunistic" "false" ];
+      description = lib.mdDoc ''
+        If set to
+        - `"true"`:
+            all DNS lookups will be encrypted. This requires
+            that the DNS server supports DNS-over-TLS and
+            has a valid certificate. If the hostname was specified
+            via the `address#hostname` format in {option}`services.resolved.domains`
+            then the specified hostname is used to validate its certificate.
+        - `"opportunistic"`:
+            all DNS lookups will attempt to be encrypted, but will fallback
+            to unecrypted requests if the server does not support DNS-over-TLS.
+            Note that this mode does allow for a malicious party to conduct a
+            downgrade attack by immitating the DNS server and pretending to not
+            support encryption.
+        - `"false"`:
+            all DNS lookups are done unencrypted.
+      '';
+    };
+
     services.resolved.extraConfig = mkOption {
       default = "";
       type = types.lines;
@@ -141,6 +164,7 @@ in
           "Domains=${concatStringsSep " " cfg.domains}"}
         LLMNR=${cfg.llmnr}
         DNSSEC=${cfg.dnssec}
+        DNSOverTLS=${cfg.dnsovertls}
         ${config.services.resolved.extraConfig}
       '';
 
diff --git a/nixos/modules/system/boot/systemd/sysusers.nix b/nixos/modules/system/boot/systemd/sysusers.nix
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..c619c2d91eb09
--- /dev/null
+++ b/nixos/modules/system/boot/systemd/sysusers.nix
@@ -0,0 +1,169 @@
+{ config, lib, pkgs, utils, ... }:
+
+let
+
+  cfg = config.systemd.sysusers;
+  userCfg = config.users;
+
+  sysusersConfig = pkgs.writeTextDir "00-nixos.conf" ''
+    # Type Name ID GECOS Home directory Shell
+
+    # Users
+    ${lib.concatLines (lib.mapAttrsToList
+      (username: opts:
+        let
+          uid = if opts.uid == null then "-" else toString opts.uid;
+        in
+          ''u ${username} ${uid}:${opts.group} "${opts.description}" ${opts.home} ${utils.toShellPath opts.shell}''
+      )
+      userCfg.users)
+    }
+
+    # Groups
+    ${lib.concatLines (lib.mapAttrsToList
+      (groupname: opts: ''g ${groupname} ${if opts.gid == null then "-" else toString opts.gid}'') userCfg.groups)
+    }
+
+    # Group membership
+    ${lib.concatStrings (lib.mapAttrsToList
+      (groupname: opts: (lib.concatMapStrings (username: "m ${username} ${groupname}\n")) opts.members ) userCfg.groups)
+    }
+  '';
+
+  staticSysusersCredentials = pkgs.runCommand "static-sysusers-credentials" { } ''
+    mkdir $out; cd $out
+    ${lib.concatLines (
+      (lib.mapAttrsToList
+        (username: opts: "echo -n '${opts.initialHashedPassword}' > 'passwd.hashed-password.${username}'")
+        (lib.filterAttrs (_username: opts: opts.initialHashedPassword != null) userCfg.users))
+        ++
+      (lib.mapAttrsToList
+        (username: opts: "echo -n '${opts.initialPassword}' > 'passwd.plaintext-password.${username}'")
+        (lib.filterAttrs (_username: opts: opts.initialPassword != null) userCfg.users))
+        ++
+      (lib.mapAttrsToList
+        (username: opts: "cat '${opts.hashedPasswordFile}' > 'passwd.hashed-password.${username}'")
+        (lib.filterAttrs (_username: opts: opts.hashedPasswordFile != null) userCfg.users))
+      )
+    }
+  '';
+
+  staticSysusers = pkgs.runCommand "static-sysusers"
+    {
+      nativeBuildInputs = [ pkgs.systemd ];
+    } ''
+    mkdir $out
+    export CREDENTIALS_DIRECTORY=${staticSysusersCredentials}
+    systemd-sysusers --root $out ${sysusersConfig}/00-nixos.conf
+  '';
+
+in
+
+{
+
+  options = {
+
+    # This module doesn't set it's own user options but reuses the ones from
+    # users-groups.nix
+
+    systemd.sysusers = {
+      enable = lib.mkEnableOption (lib.mdDoc "systemd-sysusers") // {
+        description = lib.mdDoc ''
+          If enabled, users are created with systemd-sysusers instead of with
+          the custom `update-users-groups.pl` script.
+
+          Note: This is experimental.
+        '';
+      };
+    };
+
+  };
+
+  config = lib.mkIf cfg.enable {
+
+    assertions = [
+      {
+        assertion = config.system.activationScripts.users == "";
+        message = "system.activationScripts.users has to be empty to use systemd-sysusers";
+      }
+      {
+        assertion = config.users.mutableUsers -> config.system.etc.overlay.enable;
+        message = "config.users.mutableUsers requires config.system.etc.overlay.enable.";
+      }
+    ];
+
+    systemd = lib.mkMerge [
+      ({
+
+        # Create home directories, do not create /var/empty even if that's a user's
+        # home.
+        tmpfiles.settings.home-directories = lib.mapAttrs'
+          (username: opts: lib.nameValuePair opts.home {
+            d = {
+              mode = opts.homeMode;
+              user = username;
+              group = opts.group;
+            };
+          })
+          (lib.filterAttrs (_username: opts: opts.home != "/var/empty") userCfg.users);
+      })
+
+      (lib.mkIf config.users.mutableUsers {
+        additionalUpstreamSystemUnits = [
+          "systemd-sysusers.service"
+        ];
+
+        services.systemd-sysusers = {
+          # Enable switch-to-configuration to restart the service.
+          unitConfig.ConditionNeedsUpdate = [ "" ];
+          requiredBy = [ "sysinit-reactivation.target" ];
+          before = [ "sysinit-reactivation.target" ];
+          restartTriggers = [ "${config.environment.etc."sysusers.d".source}" ];
+
+          serviceConfig = {
+            LoadCredential = lib.mapAttrsToList
+              (username: opts: "passwd.hashed-password.${username}:${opts.hashedPasswordFile}")
+              (lib.filterAttrs (_username: opts: opts.hashedPasswordFile != null) userCfg.users);
+            SetCredential = (lib.mapAttrsToList
+              (username: opts: "passwd.hashed-password.${username}:${opts.initialHashedPassword}")
+              (lib.filterAttrs (_username: opts: opts.initialHashedPassword != null) userCfg.users))
+            ++
+            (lib.mapAttrsToList
+              (username: opts: "passwd.plaintext-password.${username}:${opts.initialPassword}")
+              (lib.filterAttrs (_username: opts: opts.initialPassword != null) userCfg.users))
+            ;
+          };
+        };
+      })
+    ];
+
+    environment.etc = lib.mkMerge [
+      (lib.mkIf (!userCfg.mutableUsers) {
+        "passwd" = {
+          source = "${staticSysusers}/etc/passwd";
+          mode = "0644";
+        };
+        "group" = {
+          source = "${staticSysusers}/etc/group";
+          mode = "0644";
+        };
+        "shadow" = {
+          source = "${staticSysusers}/etc/shadow";
+          mode = "0000";
+        };
+        "gshadow" = {
+          source = "${staticSysusers}/etc/gshadow";
+          mode = "0000";
+        };
+      })
+
+      (lib.mkIf userCfg.mutableUsers {
+        "sysusers.d".source = sysusersConfig;
+      })
+    ];
+
+  };
+
+  meta.maintainers = with lib.maintainers; [ nikstur ];
+
+}
diff --git a/nixos/modules/system/boot/uki.nix b/nixos/modules/system/boot/uki.nix
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..63c4e0c0e3913
--- /dev/null
+++ b/nixos/modules/system/boot/uki.nix
@@ -0,0 +1,85 @@
+{ config, lib, pkgs, ... }:
+
+let
+
+  cfg = config.boot.uki;
+
+  inherit (pkgs.stdenv.hostPlatform) efiArch;
+
+  format = pkgs.formats.ini { };
+  ukifyConfig = format.generate "ukify.conf" cfg.settings;
+
+in
+
+{
+  options = {
+
+    boot.uki = {
+      name = lib.mkOption {
+        type = lib.types.str;
+        description = lib.mdDoc "Name of the UKI";
+      };
+
+      version = lib.mkOption {
+        type = lib.types.nullOr lib.types.str;
+        default = config.system.image.version;
+        defaultText = lib.literalExpression "config.system.image.version";
+        description = lib.mdDoc "Version of the image or generation the UKI belongs to";
+      };
+
+      settings = lib.mkOption {
+        type = format.type;
+        description = lib.mdDoc ''
+          The configuration settings for ukify. These control what the UKI
+          contains and how it is built.
+        '';
+      };
+    };
+
+    system.boot.loader.ukiFile = lib.mkOption {
+      type = lib.types.str;
+      internal = true;
+      description = lib.mdDoc "Name of the UKI file";
+    };
+
+  };
+
+  config = {
+
+    boot.uki.name = lib.mkOptionDefault (if config.system.image.id != null then
+      config.system.image.id
+    else
+      "nixos");
+
+    boot.uki.settings = lib.mkOptionDefault {
+      UKI = {
+        Linux = "${config.boot.kernelPackages.kernel}/${config.system.boot.loader.kernelFile}";
+        Initrd = "${config.system.build.initialRamdisk}/${config.system.boot.loader.initrdFile}";
+        Cmdline = "init=${config.system.build.toplevel}/init ${toString config.boot.kernelParams}";
+        Stub = "${pkgs.systemd}/lib/systemd/boot/efi/linux${efiArch}.efi.stub";
+        Uname = "${config.boot.kernelPackages.kernel.modDirVersion}";
+        OSRelease = "@${config.system.build.etc}/etc/os-release";
+        # This is needed for cross compiling.
+        EFIArch = efiArch;
+      };
+    };
+
+    system.boot.loader.ukiFile =
+      let
+        name = config.boot.uki.name;
+        version = config.boot.uki.version;
+        versionInfix = if version != null then "_${version}" else "";
+      in
+      name + versionInfix + ".efi";
+
+    system.build.uki = pkgs.runCommand config.system.boot.loader.ukiFile { } ''
+      mkdir -p $out
+      ${pkgs.buildPackages.systemdUkify}/lib/systemd/ukify build \
+        --config=${ukifyConfig} \
+        --output="$out/${config.system.boot.loader.ukiFile}"
+    '';
+
+    meta.maintainers = with lib.maintainers; [ nikstur ];
+
+  };
+}
diff --git a/nixos/modules/system/etc/build-composefs-dump.py b/nixos/modules/system/etc/build-composefs-dump.py
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..923d40008b63f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/nixos/modules/system/etc/build-composefs-dump.py
@@ -0,0 +1,209 @@
+#!/usr/bin/env python3
+
+"""Build a composefs dump from a Json config
+
+See the man page of composefs-dump for details about the format:
+https://github.com/containers/composefs/blob/main/man/composefs-dump.md
+
+Ensure to check the file with the check script when you make changes to it:
+
+./check-build-composefs-dump.sh ./build-composefs_dump.py
+"""
+
+import glob
+import json
+import os
+import sys
+from enum import Enum
+from pathlib import Path
+from typing import Any
+
+Attrs = dict[str, Any]
+
+
+class FileType(Enum):
+    """The filetype as defined by the `st_mode` stat field in octal
+
+    You can check the st_mode stat field of a path in Python with
+    `oct(os.stat("/path/").st_mode)`
+    """
+
+    directory = "4"
+    file = "10"
+    symlink = "12"
+
+
+class ComposefsPath:
+    path: str
+    size: int
+    filetype: FileType
+    mode: str
+    uid: str
+    gid: str
+    payload: str
+    rdev: str = "0"
+    nlink: int = 1
+    mtime: str = "1.0"
+    content: str = "-"
+    digest: str = "-"
+
+    def __init__(
+        self,
+        attrs: Attrs,
+        size: int,
+        filetype: FileType,
+        mode: str,
+        payload: str,
+        path: str | None = None,
+    ):
+        if path is None:
+            path = attrs["target"]
+        self.path = "/" + path
+        self.size = size
+        self.filetype = filetype
+        self.mode = mode
+        self.uid = attrs["uid"]
+        self.gid = attrs["gid"]
+        self.payload = payload
+
+    def write_line(self) -> str:
+        line_list = [
+            str(self.path),
+            str(self.size),
+            f"{self.filetype.value}{self.mode}",
+            str(self.nlink),
+            str(self.uid),
+            str(self.gid),
+            str(self.rdev),
+            str(self.mtime),
+            str(self.payload),
+            str(self.content),
+            str(self.digest),
+        ]
+        return " ".join(line_list)
+
+
+def eprint(*args, **kwargs) -> None:
+    print(args, **kwargs, file=sys.stderr)
+
+
+def leading_directories(path: str) -> list[str]:
+    """Return the leading directories of path
+
+    Given the path "alsa/conf.d/50-pipewire.conf", for example, this function
+    returns `[ "alsa", "alsa/conf.d" ]`.
+    """
+    parents = list(Path(path).parents)
+    parents.reverse()
+    # remove the implicit `.` from the start of a relative path or `/` from an
+    # absolute path
+    del parents[0]
+    return [str(i) for i in parents]
+
+
+def add_leading_directories(
+    target: str, attrs: Attrs, paths: dict[str, ComposefsPath]
+) -> None:
+    """Add the leading directories of a target path to the composefs paths
+
+    mkcomposefs expects that all leading directories are explicitly listed in
+    the dump file. Given the path "alsa/conf.d/50-pipewire.conf", for example,
+    this function adds "alsa" and "alsa/conf.d" to the composefs paths.
+    """
+    path_components = leading_directories(target)
+    for component in path_components:
+        composefs_path = ComposefsPath(
+            attrs,
+            path=component,
+            size=4096,
+            filetype=FileType.directory,
+            mode="0755",
+            payload="-",
+        )
+        paths[component] = composefs_path
+
+
+def main() -> None:
+    """Build a composefs dump from a Json config
+
+    This config describes the files that the final composefs image is supposed
+    to contain.
+    """
+    config_file = sys.argv[1]
+    if not config_file:
+        eprint("No config file was supplied.")
+        sys.exit(1)
+
+    with open(config_file, "rb") as f:
+        config = json.load(f)
+
+    if not config:
+        eprint("Config is empty.")
+        sys.exit(1)
+
+    eprint("Building composefs dump...")
+
+    paths: dict[str, ComposefsPath] = {}
+    for attrs in config:
+        target = attrs["target"]
+        source = attrs["source"]
+        mode = attrs["mode"]
+
+        if "*" in source:  # Path with globbing
+            glob_sources = glob.glob(source)
+            for glob_source in glob_sources:
+                basename = os.path.basename(glob_source)
+                glob_target = f"{target}/{basename}"
+
+                composefs_path = ComposefsPath(
+                    attrs,
+                    path=glob_target,
+                    size=100,
+                    filetype=FileType.symlink,
+                    mode="0777",
+                    payload=glob_source,
+                )
+
+                paths[glob_target] = composefs_path
+                add_leading_directories(glob_target, attrs, paths)
+        else:  # Without globbing
+            if mode == "symlink":
+                composefs_path = ComposefsPath(
+                    attrs,
+                    # A high approximation of the size of a symlink
+                    size=100,
+                    filetype=FileType.symlink,
+                    mode="0777",
+                    payload=source,
+                )
+            else:
+                if os.path.isdir(source):
+                    composefs_path = ComposefsPath(
+                        attrs,
+                        size=4096,
+                        filetype=FileType.directory,
+                        mode=mode,
+                        payload=source,
+                    )
+                else:
+                    composefs_path = ComposefsPath(
+                        attrs,
+                        size=os.stat(source).st_size,
+                        filetype=FileType.file,
+                        mode=mode,
+                        payload=target,
+                    )
+            paths[target] = composefs_path
+            add_leading_directories(target, attrs, paths)
+
+    composefs_dump = ["/ 4096 40755 1 0 0 0 0.0 - - -"]  # Root directory
+    for key in sorted(paths):
+        composefs_path = paths[key]
+        eprint(composefs_path.path)
+        composefs_dump.append(composefs_path.write_line())
+
+    print("\n".join(composefs_dump))
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    main()
diff --git a/nixos/modules/system/etc/check-build-composefs-dump.sh b/nixos/modules/system/etc/check-build-composefs-dump.sh
new file mode 100755
index 0000000000000..da61651d1a5d6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/nixos/modules/system/etc/check-build-composefs-dump.sh
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+#! /usr/bin/env nix-shell
+#! nix-shell -i bash -p black ruff mypy
+
+file=$1
+
+black --check --diff $file
+ruff --line-length 88 $file
+mypy --strict $file
diff --git a/nixos/modules/system/etc/etc-activation.nix b/nixos/modules/system/etc/etc-activation.nix
index 7801049501860..f47fd771c6592 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/system/etc/etc-activation.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/system/etc/etc-activation.nix
@@ -1,12 +1,96 @@
 { config, lib, ... }:
-let
-  inherit (lib) stringAfter;
-in {
+
+{
 
   imports = [ ./etc.nix ];
 
-  config = {
-    system.activationScripts.etc =
-      stringAfter [ "users" "groups" ] config.system.build.etcActivationCommands;
-  };
+  config = lib.mkMerge [
+
+    {
+      system.activationScripts.etc =
+        lib.stringAfter [ "users" "groups" ] config.system.build.etcActivationCommands;
+    }
+
+    (lib.mkIf config.system.etc.overlay.enable {
+
+      assertions = [
+        {
+          assertion = config.boot.initrd.systemd.enable;
+          message = "`system.etc.overlay.enable` requires `boot.initrd.systemd.enable`";
+        }
+        {
+          assertion = (!config.system.etc.overlay.mutable) -> config.systemd.sysusers.enable;
+          message = "`system.etc.overlay.mutable = false` requires `systemd.sysusers.enable`";
+        }
+        {
+          assertion = lib.versionAtLeast config.boot.kernelPackages.kernel.version "6.6";
+          message = "`system.etc.overlay.enable requires a newer kernel, at least version 6.6";
+        }
+        {
+          assertion = config.systemd.sysusers.enable -> (config.users.mutableUsers == config.system.etc.overlay.mutable);
+          message = ''
+            When using systemd-sysusers and mounting `/etc` via an overlay, users
+            can only be mutable when `/etc` is mutable and vice versa.
+          '';
+        }
+      ];
+
+      boot.initrd.availableKernelModules = [ "loop" "erofs" "overlay" ];
+
+      boot.initrd.systemd = {
+        mounts = [
+          {
+            where = "/run/etc-metadata";
+            what = "/sysroot${config.system.build.etcMetadataImage}";
+            type = "erofs";
+            options = "loop";
+            unitConfig.RequiresMountsFor = [
+              "/sysroot/nix/store"
+            ];
+          }
+          {
+            where = "/sysroot/etc";
+            what = "overlay";
+            type = "overlay";
+            options = lib.concatStringsSep "," ([
+              "relatime"
+              "redirect_dir=on"
+              "metacopy=on"
+              "lowerdir=/run/etc-metadata::/sysroot${config.system.build.etcBasedir}"
+            ] ++ lib.optionals config.system.etc.overlay.mutable [
+              "rw"
+              "upperdir=/sysroot/.rw-etc/upper"
+              "workdir=/sysroot/.rw-etc/work"
+            ] ++ lib.optionals (!config.system.etc.overlay.mutable) [
+              "ro"
+            ]);
+            wantedBy = [ "initrd-fs.target" ];
+            before = [ "initrd-fs.target" ];
+            requires = lib.mkIf config.system.etc.overlay.mutable [ "rw-etc.service" ];
+            after = lib.mkIf config.system.etc.overlay.mutable [ "rw-etc.service" ];
+            unitConfig.RequiresMountsFor = [
+              "/sysroot/nix/store"
+              "/run/etc-metadata"
+            ];
+          }
+        ];
+        services = lib.mkIf config.system.etc.overlay.mutable {
+          rw-etc = {
+            unitConfig = {
+              DefaultDependencies = false;
+              RequiresMountsFor = "/sysroot";
+            };
+            serviceConfig = {
+              Type = "oneshot";
+              ExecStart = ''
+                /bin/mkdir -p -m 0755 /sysroot/.rw-etc/upper /sysroot/.rw-etc/work
+              '';
+            };
+          };
+        };
+      };
+
+    })
+
+  ];
 }
diff --git a/nixos/modules/system/etc/etc.nix b/nixos/modules/system/etc/etc.nix
index ea61e7384e60c..baf37ba6def34 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/system/etc/etc.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/system/etc/etc.nix
@@ -62,6 +62,16 @@ let
     ]) etc'}
   '';
 
+  etcHardlinks = filter (f: f.mode != "symlink") etc';
+
+  build-composefs-dump = pkgs.runCommand "build-composefs-dump.py"
+    {
+      buildInputs = [ pkgs.python3 ];
+    } ''
+    install ${./build-composefs-dump.py} $out
+    patchShebangs --host $out
+  '';
+
 in
 
 {
@@ -72,6 +82,30 @@ in
 
   options = {
 
+    system.etc.overlay = {
+      enable = mkOption {
+        type = types.bool;
+        default = false;
+        description = lib.mdDoc ''
+          Mount `/etc` as an overlayfs instead of generating it via a perl script.
+
+          Note: This is currently experimental. Only enable this option if you're
+          confident that you can recover your system if it breaks.
+        '';
+      };
+
+      mutable = mkOption {
+        type = types.bool;
+        default = true;
+        description = lib.mdDoc ''
+          Whether to mount `/etc` mutably (i.e. read-write) or immutably (i.e. read-only).
+
+          If this is false, only the immutable lowerdir is mounted. If it is
+          true, a writable upperdir is mounted on top.
+        '';
+      };
+    };
+
     environment.etc = mkOption {
       default = {};
       example = literalExpression ''
@@ -190,12 +224,84 @@ in
   config = {
 
     system.build.etc = etc;
-    system.build.etcActivationCommands =
-      ''
-        # Set up the statically computed bits of /etc.
-        echo "setting up /etc..."
-        ${pkgs.perl.withPackages (p: [ p.FileSlurp ])}/bin/perl ${./setup-etc.pl} ${etc}/etc
+    system.build.etcActivationCommands = let
+      etcOverlayOptions = lib.concatStringsSep "," ([
+        "relatime"
+        "redirect_dir=on"
+        "metacopy=on"
+      ] ++ lib.optionals config.system.etc.overlay.mutable [
+        "upperdir=/.rw-etc/upper"
+        "workdir=/.rw-etc/work"
+      ]);
+    in if config.system.etc.overlay.enable then ''
+      # This script atomically remounts /etc when switching configuration. On a (re-)boot
+      # this should not run because /etc is mounted via a systemd mount unit
+      # instead. To a large extent this mimics what composefs does. Because
+      # it's relatively simple, however, we avoid the composefs dependency.
+      if [[ ! $IN_NIXOS_SYSTEMD_STAGE1 ]]; then
+        echo "remounting /etc..."
+
+        tmpMetadataMount=$(mktemp --directory)
+        mount --type erofs ${config.system.build.etcMetadataImage} $tmpMetadataMount
+
+        # Mount the new /etc overlay to a temporary private mount.
+        # This needs the indirection via a private bind mount because you
+        # cannot move shared mounts.
+        tmpEtcMount=$(mktemp --directory)
+        mount --bind --make-private $tmpEtcMount $tmpEtcMount
+        mount --type overlay overlay \
+          --options lowerdir=$tmpMetadataMount::${config.system.build.etcBasedir},${etcOverlayOptions} \
+          $tmpEtcMount
+
+        # Move the new temporary /etc mount underneath the current /etc mount.
+        #
+        # This should eventually use util-linux to perform this move beneath,
+        # however, this functionality is not yet in util-linux. See this
+        # tracking issue: https://github.com/util-linux/util-linux/issues/2604
+        ${pkgs.move-mount-beneath}/bin/move-mount --move --beneath $tmpEtcMount /etc
+
+        # Unmount the top /etc mount to atomically reveal the new mount.
+        umount /etc
+
+      fi
+    '' else ''
+      # Set up the statically computed bits of /etc.
+      echo "setting up /etc..."
+      ${pkgs.perl.withPackages (p: [ p.FileSlurp ])}/bin/perl ${./setup-etc.pl} ${etc}/etc
+    '';
+
+    system.build.etcBasedir = pkgs.runCommandLocal "etc-lowerdir" { } ''
+      set -euo pipefail
+
+      makeEtcEntry() {
+        src="$1"
+        target="$2"
+
+        mkdir -p "$out/$(dirname "$target")"
+        cp "$src" "$out/$target"
+      }
+
+      mkdir -p "$out"
+      ${concatMapStringsSep "\n" (etcEntry: escapeShellArgs [
+        "makeEtcEntry"
+        # Force local source paths to be added to the store
+        "${etcEntry.source}"
+        etcEntry.target
+      ]) etcHardlinks}
+    '';
+
+    system.build.etcMetadataImage =
+      let
+        etcJson = pkgs.writeText "etc-json" (builtins.toJSON etc');
+        etcDump = pkgs.runCommand "etc-dump" { } "${build-composefs-dump} ${etcJson} > $out";
+      in
+      pkgs.runCommand "etc-metadata.erofs" {
+        nativeBuildInputs = [ pkgs.composefs pkgs.erofs-utils ];
+      } ''
+        mkcomposefs --from-file ${etcDump} $out
+        fsck.erofs $out
       '';
+
   };
 
 }
diff --git a/nixos/modules/tasks/auto-upgrade.nix b/nixos/modules/tasks/auto-upgrade.nix
index 29e3e313336f5..22311871274b9 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/tasks/auto-upgrade.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/tasks/auto-upgrade.nix
@@ -109,6 +109,17 @@ in {
         '';
       };
 
+      fixedRandomDelay = mkOption {
+        default = false;
+        type = types.bool;
+        example = true;
+        description = lib.mdDoc ''
+          Make the randomized delay consistent between runs.
+          This reduces the jitter between automatic upgrades.
+          See {option}`randomizedDelaySec` for configuring the randomized delay.
+        '';
+      };
+
       rebootWindow = mkOption {
         description = lib.mdDoc ''
           Define a lower and upper time value (in HH:MM format) which
@@ -253,6 +264,7 @@ in {
     systemd.timers.nixos-upgrade = {
       timerConfig = {
         RandomizedDelaySec = cfg.randomizedDelaySec;
+        FixedRandomDelay = cfg.fixedRandomDelay;
         Persistent = cfg.persistent;
       };
     };
diff --git a/nixos/modules/testing/test-instrumentation.nix b/nixos/modules/testing/test-instrumentation.nix
index 9ee77cd79a9b1..6aa718c1975d7 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/testing/test-instrumentation.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/testing/test-instrumentation.nix
@@ -207,7 +207,10 @@ in
     networking.usePredictableInterfaceNames = false;
 
     # Make it easy to log in as root when running the test interactively.
-    users.users.root.initialHashedPassword = mkOverride 150 "";
+    # This needs to be a file because of a quirk in systemd credentials,
+    # where you cannot specify an empty string as a value. systemd-sysusers
+    # uses credentials to set passwords on users.
+    users.users.root.hashedPasswordFile = mkOverride 150 "${pkgs.writeText "hashed-password.root" ""}";
 
     services.xserver.displayManager.job.logToJournal = true;
 
diff --git a/nixos/tests/activation/etc-overlay-immutable.nix b/nixos/tests/activation/etc-overlay-immutable.nix
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..70c3623b929c5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/nixos/tests/activation/etc-overlay-immutable.nix
@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+{ lib, ... }: {
+
+  name = "activation-etc-overlay-immutable";
+
+  meta.maintainers = with lib.maintainers; [ nikstur ];
+
+  nodes.machine = { pkgs, ... }: {
+    system.etc.overlay.enable = true;
+    system.etc.overlay.mutable = false;
+
+    # Prerequisites
+    systemd.sysusers.enable = true;
+    users.mutableUsers = false;
+    boot.initrd.systemd.enable = true;
+    boot.kernelPackages = pkgs.linuxPackages_latest;
+
+    specialisation.new-generation.configuration = {
+      environment.etc."newgen".text = "newgen";
+    };
+  };
+
+  testScript = ''
+    machine.succeed("findmnt --kernel --type overlay /etc")
+    machine.fail("stat /etc/newgen")
+
+    machine.succeed("/run/current-system/specialisation/new-generation/bin/switch-to-configuration switch")
+
+    assert machine.succeed("cat /etc/newgen") == "newgen"
+  '';
+}
diff --git a/nixos/tests/activation/etc-overlay-mutable.nix b/nixos/tests/activation/etc-overlay-mutable.nix
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..cfe7604fceb84
--- /dev/null
+++ b/nixos/tests/activation/etc-overlay-mutable.nix
@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+{ lib, ... }: {
+
+  name = "activation-etc-overlay-mutable";
+
+  meta.maintainers = with lib.maintainers; [ nikstur ];
+
+  nodes.machine = { pkgs, ... }: {
+    system.etc.overlay.enable = true;
+    system.etc.overlay.mutable = true;
+
+    # Prerequisites
+    boot.initrd.systemd.enable = true;
+    boot.kernelPackages = pkgs.linuxPackages_latest;
+
+    specialisation.new-generation.configuration = {
+      environment.etc."newgen".text = "newgen";
+    };
+  };
+
+  testScript = ''
+    machine.succeed("findmnt --kernel --type overlay /etc")
+    machine.fail("stat /etc/newgen")
+    machine.succeed("echo -n 'mutable' > /etc/mutable")
+
+    machine.succeed("/run/current-system/specialisation/new-generation/bin/switch-to-configuration switch")
+
+    assert machine.succeed("cat /etc/newgen") == "newgen"
+    assert machine.succeed("cat /etc/mutable") == "mutable"
+  '';
+}
diff --git a/nixos/tests/activation/perlless.nix b/nixos/tests/activation/perlless.nix
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..4d784b4542f45
--- /dev/null
+++ b/nixos/tests/activation/perlless.nix
@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+{ lib, ... }:
+
+{
+
+  name = "activation-perlless";
+
+  meta.maintainers = with lib.maintainers; [ nikstur ];
+
+  nodes.machine = { pkgs, modulesPath, ... }: {
+    imports = [ "${modulesPath}/profiles/perlless.nix" ];
+
+    boot.kernelPackages = pkgs.linuxPackages_latest;
+
+    virtualisation.mountHostNixStore = false;
+    virtualisation.useNixStoreImage = true;
+  };
+
+  testScript = ''
+    perl_store_paths = machine.succeed("ls /nix/store | grep perl || true")
+    print(perl_store_paths)
+    assert len(perl_store_paths) == 0
+  '';
+
+}
diff --git a/nixos/tests/all-tests.nix b/nixos/tests/all-tests.nix
index 9e27969190f75..4b6696e4fdbf3 100644
--- a/nixos/tests/all-tests.nix
+++ b/nixos/tests/all-tests.nix
@@ -285,6 +285,9 @@ in {
   activation = pkgs.callPackage ../modules/system/activation/test.nix { };
   activation-var = runTest ./activation/var.nix;
   activation-nix-channel = runTest ./activation/nix-channel.nix;
+  activation-etc-overlay-mutable = runTest ./activation/etc-overlay-mutable.nix;
+  activation-etc-overlay-immutable = runTest ./activation/etc-overlay-immutable.nix;
+  activation-perlless = runTest ./activation/perlless.nix;
   etcd = handleTestOn ["x86_64-linux"] ./etcd.nix {};
   etcd-cluster = handleTestOn ["x86_64-linux"] ./etcd-cluster.nix {};
   etebase-server = handleTest ./etebase-server.nix {};
@@ -866,6 +869,8 @@ in {
   systemd-repart = handleTest ./systemd-repart.nix {};
   systemd-shutdown = handleTest ./systemd-shutdown.nix {};
   systemd-sysupdate = runTest ./systemd-sysupdate.nix;
+  systemd-sysusers-mutable = runTest ./systemd-sysusers-mutable.nix;
+  systemd-sysusers-immutable = runTest ./systemd-sysusers-immutable.nix;
   systemd-timesyncd = handleTest ./systemd-timesyncd.nix {};
   systemd-timesyncd-nscd-dnssec = handleTest ./systemd-timesyncd-nscd-dnssec.nix {};
   systemd-user-tmpfiles-rules = handleTest ./systemd-user-tmpfiles-rules.nix {};
@@ -905,6 +910,7 @@ in {
   trilium-server = handleTestOn ["x86_64-linux"] ./trilium-server.nix {};
   tsja = handleTest ./tsja.nix {};
   tsm-client-gui = handleTest ./tsm-client-gui.nix {};
+  ttyd = handleTest ./web-servers/ttyd.nix {};
   txredisapi = handleTest ./txredisapi.nix {};
   tuptime = handleTest ./tuptime.nix {};
   turbovnc-headless-server = handleTest ./turbovnc-headless-server.nix {};
diff --git a/nixos/tests/appliance-repart-image.nix b/nixos/tests/appliance-repart-image.nix
index 1c4495baba131..b18968d3b9631 100644
--- a/nixos/tests/appliance-repart-image.nix
+++ b/nixos/tests/appliance-repart-image.nix
@@ -10,10 +10,6 @@ let
 
   imageId = "nixos-appliance";
   imageVersion = "1-rc1";
-
-  bootLoaderConfigPath = "/loader/entries/nixos.conf";
-  kernelPath = "/EFI/nixos/kernel.efi";
-  initrdPath = "/EFI/nixos/initrd.efi";
 in
 {
   name = "appliance-gpt-image";
@@ -54,19 +50,8 @@ in
               "/EFI/BOOT/BOOT${lib.toUpper efiArch}.EFI".source =
                 "${pkgs.systemd}/lib/systemd/boot/efi/systemd-boot${efiArch}.efi";
 
-              # TODO: create an abstraction for Boot Loader Specification (BLS) entries.
-              "${bootLoaderConfigPath}".source = pkgs.writeText "nixos.conf" ''
-                title NixOS
-                linux ${kernelPath}
-                initrd ${initrdPath}
-                options init=${config.system.build.toplevel}/init ${toString config.boot.kernelParams}
-              '';
-
-              "${kernelPath}".source =
-                "${config.boot.kernelPackages.kernel}/${config.system.boot.loader.kernelFile}";
-
-              "${initrdPath}".source =
-                "${config.system.build.initialRamdisk}/${config.system.boot.loader.initrdFile}";
+              "/EFI/Linux/${config.system.boot.loader.ukiFile}".source =
+                "${config.system.build.uki}/${config.system.boot.loader.ukiFile}";
             };
           repartConfig = {
             Type = "esp";
@@ -119,8 +104,6 @@ in
     assert 'IMAGE_VERSION="${imageVersion}"' in os_release
 
     bootctl_status = machine.succeed("bootctl status")
-    assert "${bootLoaderConfigPath}" in bootctl_status
-    assert "${kernelPath}" in bootctl_status
-    assert "${initrdPath}" in bootctl_status
+    assert "Boot Loader Specification Type #2 (.efi)" in bootctl_status
   '';
 }
diff --git a/nixos/tests/cloud-init.nix b/nixos/tests/cloud-init.nix
index 786e01add7d4b..0b4c5a55c80a6 100644
--- a/nixos/tests/cloud-init.nix
+++ b/nixos/tests/cloud-init.nix
@@ -73,6 +73,7 @@ in makeTest {
   };
   testScript = ''
     # To wait until cloud-init terminates its run
+    unnamed.wait_for_unit("cloud-init-local.service")
     unnamed.wait_for_unit("cloud-final.service")
 
     unnamed.succeed("cat /tmp/cloudinit-write-file | grep -q 'cloudinit'")
diff --git a/nixos/tests/elk.nix b/nixos/tests/elk.nix
index 900ea6320100f..b5a8cb532ae0a 100644
--- a/nixos/tests/elk.nix
+++ b/nixos/tests/elk.nix
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 # To run the test on the unfree ELK use the following command:
 # cd path/to/nixpkgs
-# NIXPKGS_ALLOW_UNFREE=1 nix-build -A nixosTests.elk.unfree.ELK-6
+# NIXPKGS_ALLOW_UNFREE=1 nix-build -A nixosTests.elk.unfree.ELK-7
 
 { system ? builtins.currentSystem,
   config ? {},
@@ -120,7 +120,7 @@ let
               };
 
               elasticsearch-curator = {
-                enable = true;
+                enable = elk ? elasticsearch-curator;
                 actionYAML = ''
                 ---
                 actions:
@@ -246,7 +246,7 @@ let
           one.wait_until_succeeds(
               expect_hits("SuperdupercalifragilisticexpialidociousIndeed")
           )
-    '' + ''
+    '' + lib.optionalString (elk ? elasticsearch-curator) ''
       with subtest("Elasticsearch-curator works"):
           one.systemctl("stop logstash")
           one.systemctl("start elasticsearch-curator")
diff --git a/nixos/tests/miriway.nix b/nixos/tests/miriway.nix
index f12c4d5ecc41e..a0987d9fc41b6 100644
--- a/nixos/tests/miriway.nix
+++ b/nixos/tests/miriway.nix
@@ -31,7 +31,7 @@ import ./make-test-python.nix ({ pkgs, lib, ... }: {
         enable-x11=
 
         ctrl-alt=t:foot --maximized
-        ctrl-alt=a:env WINIT_UNIX_BACKEND=x11 WAYLAND_DISPLAY=invalid alacritty --option window.startup_mode=maximized
+        ctrl-alt=a:env WINIT_UNIX_BACKEND=x11 WAYLAND_DISPLAY= alacritty --option window.startup_mode=\"maximized\"
 
         shell-component=dbus-update-activation-environment --systemd DISPLAY WAYLAND_DISPLAY
 
diff --git a/nixos/tests/systemd-sysusers-immutable.nix b/nixos/tests/systemd-sysusers-immutable.nix
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..42cbf84d175e4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/nixos/tests/systemd-sysusers-immutable.nix
@@ -0,0 +1,64 @@
+{ lib, ... }:
+
+let
+  rootPassword = "$y$j9T$p6OI0WN7.rSfZBOijjRdR.$xUOA2MTcB48ac.9Oc5fz8cxwLv1mMqabnn333iOzSA6";
+  normaloPassword = "$y$j9T$3aiOV/8CADAK22OK2QT3/0$67OKd50Z4qTaZ8c/eRWHLIM.o3ujtC1.n9ysmJfv639";
+  newNormaloPassword = "mellow";
+in
+
+{
+
+  name = "activation-sysusers-immutable";
+
+  meta.maintainers = with lib.maintainers; [ nikstur ];
+
+  nodes.machine = {
+    systemd.sysusers.enable = true;
+    users.mutableUsers = false;
+
+    # Override the empty root password set by the test instrumentation
+    users.users.root.hashedPasswordFile = lib.mkForce null;
+    users.users.root.initialHashedPassword = rootPassword;
+    users.users.normalo = {
+      isNormalUser = true;
+      initialHashedPassword = normaloPassword;
+    };
+
+    specialisation.new-generation.configuration = {
+      users.users.new-normalo = {
+        isNormalUser = true;
+        initialPassword = newNormaloPassword;
+      };
+    };
+  };
+
+  testScript = ''
+    with subtest("Users are not created with systemd-sysusers"):
+      machine.fail("systemctl status systemd-sysusers.service")
+      machine.fail("ls /etc/sysusers.d")
+
+    with subtest("Correct mode on the password files"):
+      assert machine.succeed("stat -c '%a' /etc/passwd") == "644\n"
+      assert machine.succeed("stat -c '%a' /etc/group") == "644\n"
+      assert machine.succeed("stat -c '%a' /etc/shadow") == "0\n"
+      assert machine.succeed("stat -c '%a' /etc/gshadow") == "0\n"
+
+    with subtest("root user has correct password"):
+      print(machine.succeed("getent passwd root"))
+      assert "${rootPassword}" in machine.succeed("getent shadow root"), "root user password is not correct"
+
+    with subtest("normalo user is created"):
+      print(machine.succeed("getent passwd normalo"))
+      assert machine.succeed("stat -c '%U' /home/normalo") == "normalo\n"
+      assert "${normaloPassword}" in machine.succeed("getent shadow normalo"), "normalo user password is not correct"
+
+
+    machine.succeed("/run/current-system/specialisation/new-generation/bin/switch-to-configuration switch")
+
+
+    with subtest("new-normalo user is created after switching to new generation"):
+      print(machine.succeed("getent passwd new-normalo"))
+      print(machine.succeed("getent shadow new-normalo"))
+      assert machine.succeed("stat -c '%U' /home/new-normalo") == "new-normalo\n"
+  '';
+}
diff --git a/nixos/tests/systemd-sysusers-mutable.nix b/nixos/tests/systemd-sysusers-mutable.nix
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..e69cfe23a59a1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/nixos/tests/systemd-sysusers-mutable.nix
@@ -0,0 +1,71 @@
+{ lib, ... }:
+
+let
+  rootPassword = "$y$j9T$p6OI0WN7.rSfZBOijjRdR.$xUOA2MTcB48ac.9Oc5fz8cxwLv1mMqabnn333iOzSA6";
+  normaloPassword = "hello";
+  newNormaloPassword = "$y$j9T$p6OI0WN7.rSfZBOijjRdR.$xUOA2MTcB48ac.9Oc5fz8cxwLv1mMqabnn333iOzSA6";
+in
+
+{
+
+  name = "activation-sysusers-mutable";
+
+  meta.maintainers = with lib.maintainers; [ nikstur ];
+
+  nodes.machine = { pkgs, ... }: {
+    systemd.sysusers.enable = true;
+    users.mutableUsers = true;
+
+    # Prerequisites
+    system.etc.overlay.enable = true;
+    boot.initrd.systemd.enable = true;
+    boot.kernelPackages = pkgs.linuxPackages_latest;
+
+    # Override the empty root password set by the test instrumentation
+    users.users.root.hashedPasswordFile = lib.mkForce null;
+    users.users.root.initialHashedPassword = rootPassword;
+    users.users.normalo = {
+      isNormalUser = true;
+      initialPassword = normaloPassword;
+    };
+
+    specialisation.new-generation.configuration = {
+      users.users.new-normalo = {
+        isNormalUser = true;
+        initialHashedPassword = newNormaloPassword;
+      };
+    };
+  };
+
+  testScript = ''
+    machine.wait_for_unit("systemd-sysusers.service")
+
+    with subtest("systemd-sysusers.service contains the credentials"):
+      sysusers_service = machine.succeed("systemctl cat systemd-sysusers.service")
+      print(sysusers_service)
+      assert "SetCredential=passwd.plaintext-password.normalo:${normaloPassword}" in sysusers_service
+
+    with subtest("Correct mode on the password files"):
+      assert machine.succeed("stat -c '%a' /etc/passwd") == "644\n"
+      assert machine.succeed("stat -c '%a' /etc/group") == "644\n"
+      assert machine.succeed("stat -c '%a' /etc/shadow") == "0\n"
+      assert machine.succeed("stat -c '%a' /etc/gshadow") == "0\n"
+
+    with subtest("root user has correct password"):
+      print(machine.succeed("getent passwd root"))
+      assert "${rootPassword}" in machine.succeed("getent shadow root"), "root user password is not correct"
+
+    with subtest("normalo user is created"):
+      print(machine.succeed("getent passwd normalo"))
+      assert machine.succeed("stat -c '%U' /home/normalo") == "normalo\n"
+
+
+    machine.succeed("/run/current-system/specialisation/new-generation/bin/switch-to-configuration switch")
+
+
+    with subtest("new-normalo user is created after switching to new generation"):
+      print(machine.succeed("getent passwd new-normalo"))
+      assert machine.succeed("stat -c '%U' /home/new-normalo") == "new-normalo\n"
+      assert "${newNormaloPassword}" in machine.succeed("getent shadow new-normalo"), "new-normalo user password is not correct"
+  '';
+}
diff --git a/nixos/tests/web-servers/stargazer.nix b/nixos/tests/web-servers/stargazer.nix
index 6365d6a4fff10..f56d1b8c94545 100644
--- a/nixos/tests/web-servers/stargazer.nix
+++ b/nixos/tests/web-servers/stargazer.nix
@@ -1,4 +1,41 @@
 { pkgs, lib, ... }:
+let
+  test_script = pkgs.stdenv.mkDerivation rec {
+    pname = "stargazer-test-script";
+    inherit (pkgs.stargazer) version src;
+    buildInputs = with pkgs; [ (python3.withPackages (ps: with ps; [ cryptography ])) ];
+    dontBuild = true;
+    doCheck = false;
+    installPhase = ''
+      mkdir -p $out/bin
+      cp scripts/gemini-diagnostics $out/bin/test
+    '';
+  };
+  test_env = pkgs.stdenv.mkDerivation rec {
+    pname = "stargazer-test-env";
+    inherit (pkgs.stargazer) version src;
+    buildPhase = ''
+      cc test_data/cgi-bin/loop.c -o test_data/cgi-bin/loop
+    '';
+    doCheck = false;
+    installPhase = ''
+      mkdir -p $out
+      cp -r * $out/
+    '';
+  };
+  scgi_server = pkgs.stdenv.mkDerivation rec {
+    pname = "stargazer-test-scgi-server";
+    inherit (pkgs.stargazer) version src;
+    buildInputs = with pkgs; [ python3 ];
+    dontConfigure = true;
+    dontBuild = true;
+    doCheck = false;
+    installPhase = ''
+      mkdir -p $out/bin
+      cp scripts/scgi-server $out/bin/scgi-server
+    '';
+  };
+in
 {
   name = "stargazer";
   meta = with lib.maintainers; { maintainers = [ gaykitty ]; };
@@ -7,25 +44,84 @@
     geminiserver = { pkgs, ... }: {
       services.stargazer = {
         enable = true;
+        connectionLogging = false;
+        requestTimeout = 1;
         routes = [
           {
             route = "localhost";
-            root = toString (pkgs.writeTextDir "index.gmi" ''
-              # Hello NixOS!
-            '');
+            root = "${test_env}/test_data/test_site";
+          }
+          {
+            route = "localhost=/en.gmi";
+            root = "${test_env}/test_data/test_site";
+            lang = "en";
+            charset = "ascii";
+          }
+          {
+            route = "localhost~/(.*).gemini";
+            root = "${test_env}/test_data/test_site";
+            rewrite = "\\1.gmi";
+            lang = "en";
+            charset = "ascii";
+          }
+          {
+            route = "localhost=/plain.txt";
+            root = "${test_env}/test_data/test_site";
+            lang = "en";
+            charset = "ascii";
+            cert-path = "/var/lib/gemini/certs/localhost.crt";
+            key-path = "/var/lib/gemini/certs/localhost.key";
+          }
+          {
+            route = "localhost:/cgi-bin";
+            root = "${test_env}/test_data";
+            cgi = true;
+            cgi-timeout = 5;
+          }
+          {
+            route = "localhost:/scgi";
+            scgi = true;
+            scgi-address = "127.0.0.1:1099";
+          }
+          {
+            route = "localhost=/root";
+            redirect = "..";
+            permanent = true;
+          }
+          {
+            route = "localhost=/priv.gmi";
+            root = "${test_env}/test_data/test_site";
+            client-cert = "${test_env}/test_data/client_cert/good.crt";
+          }
+          {
+            route = "example.com~(.*)";
+            redirect = "gemini://localhost";
+            rewrite = "\\1";
+          }
+          {
+            route = "localhost:/no-exist";
+            root = "./does_not_exist";
           }
         ];
       };
+      systemd.services.scgi_server = {
+        after = [ "network.target" ];
+        wantedBy = [ "multi-user.target" ];
+        serviceConfig = {
+          ExecStart = "${scgi_server}/bin/scgi-server";
+        };
+      };
     };
   };
 
   testScript = { nodes, ... }: ''
+    geminiserver.wait_for_unit("scgi_server")
+    geminiserver.wait_for_open_port(1099)
     geminiserver.wait_for_unit("stargazer")
     geminiserver.wait_for_open_port(1965)
 
-    with subtest("check is serving over gemini"):
-      response = geminiserver.succeed("${pkgs.gemget}/bin/gemget --header -o - gemini://localhost:1965")
+    with subtest("stargazer test suite"):
+      response = geminiserver.succeed("sh -c 'cd ${test_env}; ${test_script}/bin/test'")
       print(response)
-      assert "Hello NixOS!" in response
   '';
 }
diff --git a/nixos/tests/web-servers/ttyd.nix b/nixos/tests/web-servers/ttyd.nix
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..d161673684b31
--- /dev/null
+++ b/nixos/tests/web-servers/ttyd.nix
@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+import ../make-test-python.nix ({ lib, pkgs, ... }: {
+  name = "ttyd";
+  meta.maintainers = with lib.maintainers; [ stunkymonkey ];
+
+  nodes.machine = { pkgs, ... }: {
+    services.ttyd = {
+      enable = true;
+      username = "foo";
+      passwordFile = pkgs.writeText "password" "bar";
+    };
+  };
+
+  testScript = ''
+    machine.wait_for_unit("ttyd.service")
+    machine.wait_for_open_port(7681)
+    response = machine.succeed("curl -vvv -u foo:bar -s -H 'Host: ttyd' http://127.0.0.1:7681/")
+    assert '<title>ttyd - Terminal</title>' in response, "Page didn't load successfully"
+  '';
+})