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-rw-r--r--nixos/doc/manual/configuration/x-windows.chapter.md6
-rw-r--r--nixos/doc/manual/development/non-switchable-systems.section.md21
-rw-r--r--nixos/doc/manual/development/what-happens-during-a-system-switch.chapter.md1
-rw-r--r--nixos/doc/manual/installation/building-images-via-systemd-repart.chapter.md (renamed from nixos/modules/image/repart.md)0
-rw-r--r--nixos/doc/manual/installation/installation.md1
-rw-r--r--nixos/doc/manual/release-notes/rl-2311.section.md37
-rw-r--r--nixos/lib/systemd-lib.nix8
-rw-r--r--nixos/lib/test-driver/default.nix5
-rwxr-xr-xnixos/lib/test-driver/test_driver/__init__.py9
-rw-r--r--nixos/lib/test-driver/test_driver/driver.py25
-rw-r--r--nixos/lib/testing-python.nix1
-rw-r--r--nixos/lib/testing/driver.nix13
-rw-r--r--nixos/lib/testing/run.nix36
-rw-r--r--nixos/maintainers/scripts/azure-new/examples/basic/system.nix1
-rw-r--r--nixos/maintainers/scripts/lxd/lxd-container-image-inner.nix6
-rw-r--r--nixos/maintainers/scripts/lxd/lxd-container-image.nix10
-rw-r--r--nixos/maintainers/scripts/lxd/lxd-virtual-machine-image-inner.nix6
-rw-r--r--nixos/maintainers/scripts/lxd/lxd-virtual-machine-image.nix10
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/config/nix-channel.nix3
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/config/users-groups.nix17
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/image/repart.nix55
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/installer/cd-dvd/channel.nix54
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/installer/tools/tools.nix22
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/installer/virtualbox-demo.nix2
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/misc/version.nix42
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/module-list.nix12
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/profiles/image-based-appliance.nix26
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/profiles/minimal.nix9
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/programs/direnv.nix2
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/programs/firefox.nix2
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/security/sudo.nix4
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/audio/wyoming/faster-whisper.nix1
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/audio/wyoming/openwakeword.nix52
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/backup/postgresql-wal-receiver.nix4
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/blockchain/ethereum/erigon.nix4
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/continuous-integration/woodpecker/server.nix8
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/databases/postgresql.md32
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/databases/postgresql.nix10
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/development/livebook.md39
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/development/livebook.nix90
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/hardware/fwupd.nix13
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/hardware/throttled.nix1
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/hardware/udev.nix2
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/home-automation/home-assistant.nix1
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/logging/syslog-ng.nix2
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/misc/paperless.nix25
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/misc/xmrig.nix4
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/monitoring/certspotter.md74
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/monitoring/certspotter.nix143
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/monitoring/grafana-image-renderer.nix2
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/networking/bitcoind.nix3
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/networking/gvpe.nix2
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/networking/multipath.nix3
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/networking/ssh/sshd.nix86
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/networking/sslh.nix189
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/networking/unifi.nix4
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/security/privacyidea.nix458
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/web-apps/akkoma.nix6
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/web-apps/mobilizon.nix4
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/web-apps/peertube.nix131
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/services/x11/extra-layouts.nix42
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/system/activation/activatable-system.nix65
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/system/activation/activation-script.nix20
-rwxr-xr-xnixos/modules/system/activation/switch-to-configuration.pl4
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/system/activation/switchable-system.nix55
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/system/boot/initrd-network.nix14
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/system/boot/initrd-ssh.nix11
-rwxr-xr-xnixos/modules/system/boot/stage-2-init.sh2
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/system/boot/systemd/initrd.nix25
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/tasks/encrypted-devices.nix7
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/tasks/filesystems/bcachefs.nix54
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/tasks/filesystems/zfs.nix12
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/tasks/network-interfaces-scripted.nix62
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/tasks/network-interfaces-systemd.nix2
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/tasks/network-interfaces.nix2
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/tasks/swraid.nix4
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/virtualisation/incus.nix236
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/virtualisation/nixos-containers.nix4
-rw-r--r--nixos/modules/virtualisation/oci-containers.nix39
-rw-r--r--nixos/release.nix2
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/activation/nix-channel.nix14
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/all-tests.nix15
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/cinnamon.nix60
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/common/auto-format-root-device.nix6
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/containers-imperative.nix4
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/freetube.nix41
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/incus/container.nix77
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/incus/default.nix14
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/incus/preseed.nix60
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/incus/socket-activated.nix26
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/incus/virtual-machine.nix55
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/installer-systemd-stage-1.nix2
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/installer.nix4
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/keymap.nix2
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/livebook-service.nix43
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/netdata.nix4
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/nextcloud/basic.nix2
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/nginx-sandbox.nix65
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/nixos-test-driver/timeout.nix15
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/non-switchable-system.nix15
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/openresty-lua.nix48
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/openssh.nix31
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/postgresql.nix4
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/predictable-interface-names.nix2
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/privacyidea.nix43
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/ssh-audit.nix103
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/sslh.nix18
-rw-r--r--nixos/tests/xfce.nix3
108 files changed, 2161 insertions, 1116 deletions
diff --git a/nixos/doc/manual/configuration/x-windows.chapter.md b/nixos/doc/manual/configuration/x-windows.chapter.md
index 5a870a46cbb82..0451e4d25265f 100644
--- a/nixos/doc/manual/configuration/x-windows.chapter.md
+++ b/nixos/doc/manual/configuration/x-windows.chapter.md
@@ -208,7 +208,7 @@ qt.style = "gtk2";
 
 It is possible to install custom [ XKB
 ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_keyboard_extension) keyboard layouts
-using the option `services.xserver.extraLayouts`.
+using the option `services.xserver.xkb.extraLayouts`.
 
 As a first example, we are going to create a layout based on the basic
 US layout, with an additional layer to type some greek symbols by
@@ -235,7 +235,7 @@ xkb_symbols "us-greek"
 A minimal layout specification must include the following:
 
 ```nix
-services.xserver.extraLayouts.us-greek = {
+services.xserver.xkb.extraLayouts.us-greek = {
   description = "US layout with alt-gr greek";
   languages   = [ "eng" ];
   symbolsFile = /yourpath/symbols/us-greek;
@@ -298,7 +298,7 @@ xkb_symbols "media"
 As before, to install the layout do
 
 ```nix
-services.xserver.extraLayouts.media = {
+services.xserver.xkb.extraLayouts.media = {
   description  = "Multimedia keys remapping";
   languages    = [ "eng" ];
   symbolsFile  = /path/to/media-key;
diff --git a/nixos/doc/manual/development/non-switchable-systems.section.md b/nixos/doc/manual/development/non-switchable-systems.section.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..87bb46c789091
--- /dev/null
+++ b/nixos/doc/manual/development/non-switchable-systems.section.md
@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+# Non Switchable Systems {#sec-non-switchable-system}
+
+In certain systems, most notably image based appliances, updates are handled
+outside the system. This means that you do not need to rebuild your
+configuration on the system itself anymore.
+
+If you want to build such a system, you can use the `image-based-appliance`
+profile:
+
+```nix
+{ modulesPath, ... }: {
+  imports = [ "${modulesPath}/profiles/image-based-appliance.nix" ]
+}
+```
+
+The most notable deviation of this profile from a standard NixOS configuration
+is that after building it, you cannot switch *to* the configuration anymore.
+The profile sets `config.system.switch.enable = false;`, which excludes
+`switch-to-configuration`, the central script called by `nixos-rebuild`, from
+your system. Removing this script makes the image lighter and slightly more
+secure.
diff --git a/nixos/doc/manual/development/what-happens-during-a-system-switch.chapter.md b/nixos/doc/manual/development/what-happens-during-a-system-switch.chapter.md
index 82522b33740e7..ccadb819e061d 100644
--- a/nixos/doc/manual/development/what-happens-during-a-system-switch.chapter.md
+++ b/nixos/doc/manual/development/what-happens-during-a-system-switch.chapter.md
@@ -55,4 +55,5 @@ explained in the next sections.
 ```{=include=} sections
 unit-handling.section.md
 activation-script.section.md
+non-switchable-systems.section.md
 ```
diff --git a/nixos/modules/image/repart.md b/nixos/doc/manual/installation/building-images-via-systemd-repart.chapter.md
index 6d0675f21a033..6d0675f21a033 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/image/repart.md
+++ b/nixos/doc/manual/installation/building-images-via-systemd-repart.chapter.md
diff --git a/nixos/doc/manual/installation/installation.md b/nixos/doc/manual/installation/installation.md
index 140594256609f..f3b1773d865ce 100644
--- a/nixos/doc/manual/installation/installation.md
+++ b/nixos/doc/manual/installation/installation.md
@@ -8,4 +8,5 @@ installing.chapter.md
 changing-config.chapter.md
 upgrading.chapter.md
 building-nixos.chapter.md
+building-images-via-systemd-repart.chapter.md
 ```
diff --git a/nixos/doc/manual/release-notes/rl-2311.section.md b/nixos/doc/manual/release-notes/rl-2311.section.md
index 06b17194a3133..c5406e183c392 100644
--- a/nixos/doc/manual/release-notes/rl-2311.section.md
+++ b/nixos/doc/manual/release-notes/rl-2311.section.md
@@ -38,6 +38,8 @@
   true`. This is generally safe behavior, but for anyone needing to opt out from
   the check `users.users.${USERNAME}.ignoreShellProgramCheck = true` will do the job.
 
+- Cassandra now defaults to 4.x, updated from 3.11.x.
+
 ## New Services {#sec-release-23.11-new-services}
 
 - [MCHPRS](https://github.com/MCHPR/MCHPRS), a multithreaded Minecraft server built for redstone. Available as [services.mchprs](#opt-services.mchprs.enable).
@@ -72,6 +74,8 @@
 
 - [LibreNMS](https://www.librenms.org), a auto-discovering PHP/MySQL/SNMP based network monitoring. Available as [services.librenms](#opt-services.librenms.enable).
 
+- [Livebook](https://livebook.dev/), an interactive notebook with support for Elixir, graphs, machine learning, and more.
+
 - [sitespeed-io](https://sitespeed.io), a tool that can generate metrics (timings, diagnostics) for websites. Available as [services.sitespeed-io](#opt-services.sitespeed-io.enable).
 
 - [stalwart-mail](https://stalw.art), an all-in-one email server (SMTP, IMAP, JMAP). Available as [services.stalwart-mail](#opt-services.stalwart-mail.enable).
@@ -113,6 +117,8 @@
 
 - [tuxedo-rs](https://github.com/AaronErhardt/tuxedo-rs), Rust utilities for interacting with hardware from TUXEDO Computers.
 
+- [certspotter](https://github.com/SSLMate/certspotter), a certificate transparency log monitor. Available as [services.certspotter](#opt-services.certspotter.enable).
+
 - [audiobookshelf](https://github.com/advplyr/audiobookshelf/), a self-hosted audiobook and podcast server. Available as [services.audiobookshelf](#opt-services.audiobookshelf.enable).
 
 - [ZITADEL](https://zitadel.com), a turnkey identity and access management platform. Available as [services.zitadel](#opt-services.zitadel.enable).
@@ -160,8 +166,16 @@
 
 - `getent` has been moved from `glibc`'s `bin` output to its own dedicated output, reducing closure size for many dependents. Dependents using the `getent` alias should not be affected; others should move from using `glibc.bin` or `getBin glibc` to `getent` (which also improves compatibility with non-glibc platforms).
 
+- `maintainers/scripts/update-luarocks-packages` is now a proper package
+  `luarocks-packages-updater` that can be run to maintain out-of-tree luarocks
+  packages
+
 - The `users.users.<name>.passwordFile` has been renamed to `users.users.<name>.hashedPasswordFile` to avoid possible confusions. The option is in fact the file-based version of `hashedPassword`, not `password`, and expects a file containing the {manpage}`crypt(3)` hash of the user password.
 
+- `chromiumBeta` and `chromiumDev` have been removed due to the lack of maintenance in nixpkgs. Consider using `chromium` instead.
+
+- `google-chrome-beta` and `google-chrome-dev` have been removed due to the lack of maintenance in nixpkgs. Consider using `google-chrome` instead.
+
 - The `services.ananicy.extraRules` option now has the type of `listOf attrs` instead of `string`.
 
 - `buildVimPluginFrom2Nix` has been renamed to `buildVimPlugin`, which now
@@ -308,7 +322,7 @@
   order, or relying on `mkBefore` and `mkAfter`, but may impact users calling
   `mkOrder n` with n ≤ 400.
 
-- X keyboard extension (XKB) options have been reorganized into a single attribute set, `services.xserver.xkb`. Specifically, `services.xserver.layout` is now `services.xserver.xkb.layout`, `services.xserver.xkbModel` is now `services.xserver.xkb.model`, `services.xserver.xkbOptions` is now `services.xserver.xkb.options`, `services.xserver.xkbVariant` is now `services.xserver.xkb.variant`, and `services.xserver.xkbDir` is now `services.xserver.xkb.dir`.
+- X keyboard extension (XKB) options have been reorganized into a single attribute set, `services.xserver.xkb`. Specifically, `services.xserver.layout` is now `services.xserver.xkb.layout`, `services.xserver.extraLayouts` is now `services.xserver.xkb.extraLayouts`, `services.xserver.xkbModel` is now `services.xserver.xkb.model`, `services.xserver.xkbOptions` is now `services.xserver.xkb.options`, `services.xserver.xkbVariant` is now `services.xserver.xkb.variant`, and `services.xserver.xkbDir` is now `services.xserver.xkb.dir`.
 
 - `networking.networkmanager.firewallBackend` was removed as NixOS is now using iptables-nftables-compat even when using iptables, therefore Networkmanager now uses the nftables backend unconditionally.
 
@@ -323,10 +337,14 @@
 
 - The `services.mtr-exporter.target` has been removed in favor of `services.mtr-exporter.jobs` which allows specifying multiple targets.
 
+- `blender-with-packages` has been deprecated in favor of `blender.withPackages`, for example `blender.withPackages (ps: [ps.bpycv])`. It behaves similarly to `python3.withPackages`.
+
 - Setting `nixpkgs.config` options while providing an external `pkgs` instance will now raise an error instead of silently ignoring the options. NixOS modules no longer set `nixpkgs.config` to accomodate this. This specifically affects `services.locate`, `services.xserver.displayManager.lightdm.greeters.tiny` and `programs.firefox` NixOS modules. No manual intervention should be required in most cases, however, configurations relying on those modules affecting packages outside the system environment should switch to explicit overlays.
 
 - `service.borgmatic.settings.location` and `services.borgmatic.configurations.<name>.location` are deprecated, please move your options out of sections to the global scope.
 
+- `privacyidea` (and the corresponding `privacyidea-ldap-proxy`) has been removed from nixpkgs because it has severely outdated dependencies that became unmaintainable with nixpkgs' python package-set.
+
 - `dagger` was removed because using a package called `dagger` and packaging it from source violates their trademark policy.
 
 - `win-virtio` package was renamed to `virtio-win` to be consistent with the upstream package name.
@@ -343,6 +361,11 @@
 
 ## Other Notable Changes {#sec-release-23.11-notable-changes}
 
+- A new option `system.switch.enable` was added. By default, this is option is
+  enabled. Disabling it makes the system unable to be reconfigured via
+  `nixos-rebuild`. This is good for image based appliances where updates are
+  handled outside the image.
+
 - The Cinnamon module now enables XDG desktop integration by default. If you are experiencing collisions related to xdg-desktop-portal-gtk you can safely remove `xdg.portal.extraPortals = [ pkgs.xdg-desktop-portal-gtk ];` from your NixOS configuration.
 
 - GNOME, Pantheon, Cinnamon module no longer forces Qt applications to use Adwaita style since it was buggy and is no longer maintained upstream (specifically, Cinnamon now defaults to the gtk2 style instead, following the default in Linux Mint). If you still want it, you can add the following options to your configuration but it will probably be eventually removed:
@@ -369,6 +392,9 @@
 
 - `zfs` was updated from 2.1.x to 2.2.0, [enabling newer kernel support and adding new features](https://github.com/openzfs/zfs/releases/tag/zfs-2.2.0).
 
+- Elixir now defaults to version
+  [v1.15](https://elixir-lang.org/blog/2023/06/19/elixir-v1-15-0-released/).
+
 - A new option was added to the virtualisation module that enables specifying explicitly named network interfaces in QEMU VMs. The existing `virtualisation.vlans` is still supported for cases where the name of the network interface is irrelevant.
 
 - DocBook option documentation is no longer supported, all module documentation now uses markdown.
@@ -381,6 +407,9 @@
 
 - The `fonts.fonts` and `fonts.enableDefaultFonts` options have been renamed to `fonts.packages` and `fonts.enableDefaultPackages` respectively.
 
+- The `services.sslh` module has been updated to follow [RFC 0042](https://github.com/NixOS/rfcs/blob/master/rfcs/0042-config-option.md). As such, several options have been moved to the freeform attribute set [services.sslh.settings](#opt-services.sslh.settings), which allows to change any of the settings in {manpage}`sslh(8)`.
+  In addition, the newly added option [services.sslh.method](#opt-services.sslh.method) allows to switch between the {manpage}`fork(2)`, {manpage}`select(2)` and `libev`-based connection handling method; see the [sslh docs](https://github.com/yrutschle/sslh/blob/master/doc/INSTALL.md#binaries) for a comparison.
+
 - `pkgs.openvpn3` now optionally supports systemd-resolved. `programs.openvpn3` will automatically enable systemd-resolved support if `config.services.resolved.enable` is enabled.
 
 - `services.fail2ban.jails` can now be configured with attribute sets defining settings and filters instead of lines. The stringed options `daemonConfig` and `extraSettings` have respectively been replaced by `daemonSettings` and `jails.DEFAULT.settings` which use attribute sets.
@@ -389,6 +418,8 @@
 
 - `services.hedgedoc` has been heavily refactored, reducing the amount of declared options in the module. Most of the options should still work without any changes. Some options have been deprecated, as they no longer have any effect. See [#244941](https://github.com/NixOS/nixpkgs/pull/244941) for more details.
 
+- The [services.woodpecker-server](#opt-services.woodpecker-server.environmentFile) type was changed to list of paths to be more consistent to the woodpecker-agent module
+
 - The module [services.ankisyncd](#opt-services.ankisyncd.package) has been switched to [anki-sync-server-rs](https://github.com/ankicommunity/anki-sync-server-rs) from the old python version, which was difficult to update, had not been updated in a while, and did not support recent versions of anki.
 Unfortunately all servers supporting new clients (newer version of anki-sync-server, anki's built in sync server and this new rust package) do not support the older sync protocol that was used in the old server, so such old clients will also need updating and in particular the anki package in nixpkgs is also being updated in this release.
 The module update takes care of the new config syntax and the data itself (user login and cards) are compatible, so users of the module will be able to just log in again after updating both client and server without any extra action.
@@ -470,10 +501,14 @@ The module update takes care of the new config syntax and the data itself (user
 
   If you use this feature, updates to CoreDNS may require updating `vendorHash` by following these steps again.
 
+- `postgresql_11` has been removed since it'll stop receiving fixes on November 9 2023.
+
 - `ffmpeg` default upgraded from `ffmpeg_5` to `ffmpeg_6`.
 
 - `fusuma` now enables the following plugins: [appmatcher](https://github.com/iberianpig/fusuma-plugin-appmatcher), [keypress](https://github.com/iberianpig/fusuma-plugin-keypress), [sendkey](https://github.com/iberianpig/fusuma-plugin-sendkey), [tap](https://github.com/iberianpig/fusuma-plugin-tap) and [wmctrl](https://github.com/iberianpig/fusuma-plugin-wmctrl).
 
+- `services.bitcoind` now properly respects the `enable` option.
+
 ## Nixpkgs internals {#sec-release-23.11-nixpkgs-internals}
 
 - The use of `sourceRoot = "source";`, `sourceRoot = "source/subdir";`, and similar lines in package derivations using the default `unpackPhase` is deprecated as it requires `unpackPhase` to always produce a directory named "source". Use `sourceRoot = src.name`, `sourceRoot = "${src.name}/subdir";`, or `setSourceRoot = "sourceRoot=$(echo */subdir)";` or similar instead.
diff --git a/nixos/lib/systemd-lib.nix b/nixos/lib/systemd-lib.nix
index 5669aae0bc19e..7b600464bb415 100644
--- a/nixos/lib/systemd-lib.nix
+++ b/nixos/lib/systemd-lib.nix
@@ -20,12 +20,16 @@ in rec {
       pkgs.runCommand "unit-${mkPathSafeName name}"
         { preferLocalBuild = true;
           allowSubstitutes = false;
-          inherit (unit) text;
+          # unit.text can be null. But variables that are null listed in
+          # passAsFile are ignored by nix, resulting in no file being created,
+          # making the mv operation fail.
+          text = optionalString (unit.text != null) unit.text;
+          passAsFile = [ "text" ];
         }
         ''
           name=${shellEscape name}
           mkdir -p "$out/$(dirname -- "$name")"
-          echo -n "$text" > "$out/$name"
+          mv "$textPath" "$out/$name"
         ''
     else
       pkgs.runCommand "unit-${mkPathSafeName name}-disabled"
diff --git a/nixos/lib/test-driver/default.nix b/nixos/lib/test-driver/default.nix
index 6e01e00b43552..09d80deb85467 100644
--- a/nixos/lib/test-driver/default.nix
+++ b/nixos/lib/test-driver/default.nix
@@ -11,6 +11,7 @@
 , tesseract4
 , vde2
 , extraPythonPackages ? (_ : [])
+, nixosTests
 }:
 
 python3Packages.buildPythonApplication {
@@ -31,6 +32,10 @@ python3Packages.buildPythonApplication {
     ++ (lib.optionals enableOCR [ imagemagick_light tesseract4 ])
     ++ extraPythonPackages python3Packages;
 
+  passthru.tests = {
+    inherit (nixosTests.nixos-test-driver) driver-timeout;
+  };
+
   doCheck = true;
   nativeCheckInputs = with python3Packages; [ mypy ruff black ];
   checkPhase = ''
diff --git a/nixos/lib/test-driver/test_driver/__init__.py b/nixos/lib/test-driver/test_driver/__init__.py
index 371719d7a9884..9daae1e941a65 100755
--- a/nixos/lib/test-driver/test_driver/__init__.py
+++ b/nixos/lib/test-driver/test_driver/__init__.py
@@ -77,6 +77,14 @@ def main() -> None:
         help="vlans to span by the driver",
     )
     arg_parser.add_argument(
+        "--global-timeout",
+        type=int,
+        metavar="GLOBAL_TIMEOUT",
+        action=EnvDefault,
+        envvar="globalTimeout",
+        help="Timeout in seconds for the whole test",
+    )
+    arg_parser.add_argument(
         "-o",
         "--output_directory",
         help="""The path to the directory where outputs copied from the VM will be placed.
@@ -103,6 +111,7 @@ def main() -> None:
         args.testscript.read_text(),
         args.output_directory.resolve(),
         args.keep_vm_state,
+        args.global_timeout,
     ) as driver:
         if args.interactive:
             history_dir = os.getcwd()
diff --git a/nixos/lib/test-driver/test_driver/driver.py b/nixos/lib/test-driver/test_driver/driver.py
index 723c807178607..786821b0cc0d6 100644
--- a/nixos/lib/test-driver/test_driver/driver.py
+++ b/nixos/lib/test-driver/test_driver/driver.py
@@ -1,6 +1,8 @@
 import os
 import re
+import signal
 import tempfile
+import threading
 from contextlib import contextmanager
 from pathlib import Path
 from typing import Any, Callable, ContextManager, Dict, Iterator, List, Optional, Union
@@ -41,6 +43,8 @@ class Driver:
     vlans: List[VLan]
     machines: List[Machine]
     polling_conditions: List[PollingCondition]
+    global_timeout: int
+    race_timer: threading.Timer
 
     def __init__(
         self,
@@ -49,9 +53,12 @@ class Driver:
         tests: str,
         out_dir: Path,
         keep_vm_state: bool = False,
+        global_timeout: int = 24 * 60 * 60 * 7,
     ):
         self.tests = tests
         self.out_dir = out_dir
+        self.global_timeout = global_timeout
+        self.race_timer = threading.Timer(global_timeout, self.terminate_test)
 
         tmp_dir = get_tmp_dir()
 
@@ -82,6 +89,7 @@ class Driver:
 
     def __exit__(self, *_: Any) -> None:
         with rootlog.nested("cleanup"):
+            self.race_timer.cancel()
             for machine in self.machines:
                 machine.release()
 
@@ -144,6 +152,10 @@ class Driver:
 
     def run_tests(self) -> None:
         """Run the test script (for non-interactive test runs)"""
+        rootlog.info(
+            f"Test will time out and terminate in {self.global_timeout} seconds"
+        )
+        self.race_timer.start()
         self.test_script()
         # TODO: Collect coverage data
         for machine in self.machines:
@@ -161,6 +173,19 @@ class Driver:
         with rootlog.nested("wait for all VMs to finish"):
             for machine in self.machines:
                 machine.wait_for_shutdown()
+            self.race_timer.cancel()
+
+    def terminate_test(self) -> None:
+        # This will be usually running in another thread than
+        # the thread actually executing the test script.
+        with rootlog.nested("timeout reached; test terminating..."):
+            for machine in self.machines:
+                machine.release()
+            # As we cannot `sys.exit` from another thread
+            # We can at least force the main thread to get SIGTERM'ed.
+            # This will prevent any user who caught all the exceptions
+            # to swallow them and prevent itself from terminating.
+            os.kill(os.getpid(), signal.SIGTERM)
 
     def create_machine(self, args: Dict[str, Any]) -> Machine:
         tmp_dir = get_tmp_dir()
diff --git a/nixos/lib/testing-python.nix b/nixos/lib/testing-python.nix
index 4904ad6e35913..f5222351518b5 100644
--- a/nixos/lib/testing-python.nix
+++ b/nixos/lib/testing-python.nix
@@ -42,6 +42,7 @@ rec {
     , nodes ? {}
     , testScript
     , enableOCR ? false
+    , globalTimeout ? (60 * 60)
     , name ? "unnamed"
     , skipTypeCheck ? false
       # Skip linting (mainly intended for faster dev cycles)
diff --git a/nixos/lib/testing/driver.nix b/nixos/lib/testing/driver.nix
index cc97ca72083f9..b6f01c38191d2 100644
--- a/nixos/lib/testing/driver.nix
+++ b/nixos/lib/testing/driver.nix
@@ -94,6 +94,7 @@ let
         wrapProgram $out/bin/nixos-test-driver \
           --set startScripts "''${vmStartScripts[*]}" \
           --set testScript "$out/test-script" \
+          --set globalTimeout "${toString config.globalTimeout}" \
           --set vlans '${toString vlans}' \
           ${lib.escapeShellArgs (lib.concatMap (arg: ["--add-flags" arg]) config.extraDriverArgs)}
       '';
@@ -123,6 +124,18 @@ in
       defaultText = "hostPkgs.qemu_test";
     };
 
+    globalTimeout = mkOption {
+      description = mdDoc ''
+        A global timeout for the complete test, expressed in seconds.
+        Beyond that timeout, every resource will be killed and released and the test will fail.
+
+        By default, we use a 1 hour timeout.
+      '';
+      type = types.int;
+      default = 60 * 60;
+      example = 10 * 60;
+    };
+
     enableOCR = mkOption {
       description = mdDoc ''
         Whether to enable Optical Character Recognition functionality for
diff --git a/nixos/lib/testing/run.nix b/nixos/lib/testing/run.nix
index 0cd07d8afd21d..9440c1acdfd81 100644
--- a/nixos/lib/testing/run.nix
+++ b/nixos/lib/testing/run.nix
@@ -16,6 +16,15 @@ in
       '';
     };
 
+    rawTestDerivation = mkOption {
+      type = types.package;
+      description = mdDoc ''
+        Unfiltered version of `test`, for troubleshooting the test framework and `testBuildFailure` in the test framework's test suite.
+        This is not intended for general use. Use `test` instead.
+      '';
+      internal = true;
+    };
+
     test = mkOption {
       type = types.package;
       # TODO: can the interactive driver be configured to access the network?
@@ -29,25 +38,26 @@ in
   };
 
   config = {
-    test = lib.lazyDerivation { # lazyDerivation improves performance when only passthru items and/or meta are used.
-      derivation = hostPkgs.stdenv.mkDerivation {
-        name = "vm-test-run-${config.name}";
+    rawTestDerivation = hostPkgs.stdenv.mkDerivation {
+      name = "vm-test-run-${config.name}";
 
-        requiredSystemFeatures = [ "kvm" "nixos-test" ];
+      requiredSystemFeatures = [ "kvm" "nixos-test" ];
 
-        buildCommand = ''
-          mkdir -p $out
+      buildCommand = ''
+        mkdir -p $out
 
-          # effectively mute the XMLLogger
-          export LOGFILE=/dev/null
+        # effectively mute the XMLLogger
+        export LOGFILE=/dev/null
 
-          ${config.driver}/bin/nixos-test-driver -o $out
-        '';
+        ${config.driver}/bin/nixos-test-driver -o $out
+      '';
 
-        passthru = config.passthru;
+      passthru = config.passthru;
 
-        meta = config.meta;
-      };
+      meta = config.meta;
+    };
+    test = lib.lazyDerivation { # lazyDerivation improves performance when only passthru items and/or meta are used.
+      derivation = config.rawTestDerivation;
       inherit (config) passthru meta;
     };
 
diff --git a/nixos/maintainers/scripts/azure-new/examples/basic/system.nix b/nixos/maintainers/scripts/azure-new/examples/basic/system.nix
index d283742701d19..d1044802e1f09 100644
--- a/nixos/maintainers/scripts/azure-new/examples/basic/system.nix
+++ b/nixos/maintainers/scripts/azure-new/examples/basic/system.nix
@@ -21,7 +21,6 @@ in
 
   virtualisation.azureImage.diskSize = 2500;
 
-  system.stateVersion = "20.03";
   boot.kernelPackages = pkgs.linuxPackages_latest;
 
   # test user doesn't have a password
diff --git a/nixos/maintainers/scripts/lxd/lxd-container-image-inner.nix b/nixos/maintainers/scripts/lxd/lxd-container-image-inner.nix
index 7b743d170bc64..62a6e1f9aa3a8 100644
--- a/nixos/maintainers/scripts/lxd/lxd-container-image-inner.nix
+++ b/nixos/maintainers/scripts/lxd/lxd-container-image-inner.nix
@@ -2,13 +2,13 @@
 # your system.  Help is available in the configuration.nix(5) man page
 # and in the NixOS manual (accessible by running ‘nixos-help’).
 
-{ config, pkgs, lib, ... }:
+{ config, pkgs, lib, modulesPath, ... }:
 
 {
   imports =
     [
       # Include the default lxd configuration.
-      ../../../modules/virtualisation/lxc-container.nix
+      "${modulesPath}/modules/virtualisation/lxc-container.nix"
       # Include the container-specific autogenerated configuration.
       ./lxd.nix
     ];
@@ -16,5 +16,5 @@
   networking.useDHCP = false;
   networking.interfaces.eth0.useDHCP = true;
 
-  system.stateVersion = "21.05"; # Did you read the comment?
+  system.stateVersion = "@stateVersion@"; # Did you read the comment?
 }
diff --git a/nixos/maintainers/scripts/lxd/lxd-container-image.nix b/nixos/maintainers/scripts/lxd/lxd-container-image.nix
index 3bd1320b2b680..b77f9f5aabe09 100644
--- a/nixos/maintainers/scripts/lxd/lxd-container-image.nix
+++ b/nixos/maintainers/scripts/lxd/lxd-container-image.nix
@@ -13,11 +13,15 @@
   };
 
   # copy the config for nixos-rebuild
-  system.activationScripts.config = ''
+  system.activationScripts.config = let
+    config = pkgs.substituteAll {
+      src = ./lxd-container-image-inner.nix;
+      stateVersion = lib.trivial.release;
+    };
+  in ''
     if [ ! -e /etc/nixos/configuration.nix ]; then
       mkdir -p /etc/nixos
-      cat ${./lxd-container-image-inner.nix} > /etc/nixos/configuration.nix
-      ${lib.getExe pkgs.gnused} 's|../../../modules/virtualisation/lxc-container.nix|<nixpkgs/nixos/modules/virtualisation/lxc-container.nix>|g' -i /etc/nixos/configuration.nix
+      cp ${config} /etc/nixos/configuration.nix
     fi
   '';
 
diff --git a/nixos/maintainers/scripts/lxd/lxd-virtual-machine-image-inner.nix b/nixos/maintainers/scripts/lxd/lxd-virtual-machine-image-inner.nix
index a8f2c63ac5c69..c1c50b32ff5bd 100644
--- a/nixos/maintainers/scripts/lxd/lxd-virtual-machine-image-inner.nix
+++ b/nixos/maintainers/scripts/lxd/lxd-virtual-machine-image-inner.nix
@@ -2,13 +2,13 @@
 # your system.  Help is available in the configuration.nix(5) man page
 # and in the NixOS manual (accessible by running ‘nixos-help’).
 
-{ config, pkgs, lib, ... }:
+{ config, pkgs, lib, modulesPath, ... }:
 
 {
   imports =
     [
       # Include the default lxd configuration.
-      ../../../modules/virtualisation/lxd-virtual-machine.nix
+      "${modulesPath}/virtualisation/lxd-virtual-machine.nix"
       # Include the container-specific autogenerated configuration.
       ./lxd.nix
     ];
@@ -16,5 +16,5 @@
   networking.useDHCP = false;
   networking.interfaces.eth0.useDHCP = true;
 
-  system.stateVersion = "23.05"; # Did you read the comment?
+  system.stateVersion = "@stateVersion@"; # Did you read the comment?
 }
diff --git a/nixos/maintainers/scripts/lxd/lxd-virtual-machine-image.nix b/nixos/maintainers/scripts/lxd/lxd-virtual-machine-image.nix
index eb0d9217d4021..0d96eea0e2d2c 100644
--- a/nixos/maintainers/scripts/lxd/lxd-virtual-machine-image.nix
+++ b/nixos/maintainers/scripts/lxd/lxd-virtual-machine-image.nix
@@ -13,11 +13,15 @@
   };
 
   # copy the config for nixos-rebuild
-  system.activationScripts.config = ''
+  system.activationScripts.config = let
+    config = pkgs.substituteAll {
+      src = ./lxd-virtual-machine-image-inner.nix;
+      stateVersion = lib.trivial.release;
+    };
+  in ''
     if [ ! -e /etc/nixos/configuration.nix ]; then
       mkdir -p /etc/nixos
-      cat ${./lxd-virtual-machine-image-inner.nix} > /etc/nixos/configuration.nix
-      ${lib.getExe pkgs.gnused} 's|../../../modules/virtualisation/lxd-virtual-machine.nix|<nixpkgs/nixos/modules/virtualisation/lxd-virtual-machine.nix>|g' -i /etc/nixos/configuration.nix
+      cp ${config} /etc/nixos/configuration.nix
     fi
   '';
 
diff --git a/nixos/modules/config/nix-channel.nix b/nixos/modules/config/nix-channel.nix
index 4abc846b08586..a7ca7a5c74a40 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/config/nix-channel.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/config/nix-channel.nix
@@ -98,8 +98,7 @@ in
     nix.settings.nix-path = mkIf (! cfg.channel.enable) (mkDefault "");
 
     systemd.tmpfiles.rules = lib.mkIf cfg.channel.enable [
-      "f /root/.nix-channels -"
-      ''w "/root/.nix-channels" - - - - "${config.system.defaultChannel} nixos\n"''
+      ''f /root/.nix-channels - - - - ${config.system.defaultChannel} nixos\n''
     ];
   };
 }
diff --git a/nixos/modules/config/users-groups.nix b/nixos/modules/config/users-groups.nix
index 97268a8d83efa..b4251214876ef 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/config/users-groups.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/config/users-groups.nix
@@ -606,6 +606,14 @@ in {
           defaultText = literalExpression "config.users.users.\${name}.group";
           default = cfg.users.${name}.group;
         };
+        options.shell = mkOption {
+          type = types.passwdEntry types.path;
+          description = ''
+            The path to the user's shell in initrd.
+          '';
+          default = "${pkgs.shadow}/bin/nologin";
+          defaultText = literalExpression "\${pkgs.shadow}/bin/nologin";
+        };
       }));
     };
 
@@ -750,17 +758,20 @@ in {
     boot.initrd.systemd = lib.mkIf config.boot.initrd.systemd.enable {
       contents = {
         "/etc/passwd".text = ''
-          ${lib.concatStringsSep "\n" (lib.mapAttrsToList (n: { uid, group }: let
+          ${lib.concatStringsSep "\n" (lib.mapAttrsToList (n: { uid, group, shell }: let
             g = config.boot.initrd.systemd.groups.${group};
-          in "${n}:x:${toString uid}:${toString g.gid}::/var/empty:") config.boot.initrd.systemd.users)}
+          in "${n}:x:${toString uid}:${toString g.gid}::/var/empty:${shell}") config.boot.initrd.systemd.users)}
         '';
         "/etc/group".text = ''
           ${lib.concatStringsSep "\n" (lib.mapAttrsToList (n: { gid }: "${n}:x:${toString gid}:") config.boot.initrd.systemd.groups)}
         '';
+        "/etc/shells".text = lib.concatStringsSep "\n" (lib.unique (lib.mapAttrsToList (_: u: u.shell) config.boot.initrd.systemd.users)) + "\n";
       };
 
+      storePaths = [ "${pkgs.shadow}/bin/nologin" ];
+
       users = {
-        root = {};
+        root = { shell = lib.mkDefault "/bin/bash"; };
         nobody = {};
       };
 
diff --git a/nixos/modules/image/repart.nix b/nixos/modules/image/repart.nix
index e567485c9d342..41e6110885b85 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/image/repart.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/image/repart.nix
@@ -34,12 +34,13 @@ let
           };
         });
         default = { };
-        example = lib.literalExpression '' {
-          "/EFI/BOOT/BOOTX64.EFI".source =
-            "''${pkgs.systemd}/lib/systemd/boot/efi/systemd-bootx64.efi";
+        example = lib.literalExpression ''
+          {
+            "/EFI/BOOT/BOOTX64.EFI".source =
+              "''${pkgs.systemd}/lib/systemd/boot/efi/systemd-bootx64.efi";
 
-          "/loader/entries/nixos.conf".source = systemdBootEntry;
-        }
+            "/loader/entries/nixos.conf".source = systemdBootEntry;
+          }
         '';
         description = lib.mdDoc "The contents to end up in the filesystem image.";
       };
@@ -90,34 +91,33 @@ in
 
     package = lib.mkPackageOption pkgs "systemd-repart" {
       default = "systemd";
-      example = lib.literalExpression ''
-        pkgs.systemdMinimal.override { withCryptsetup = true; }
-      '';
+      example = "pkgs.systemdMinimal.override { withCryptsetup = true; }";
     };
 
     partitions = lib.mkOption {
       type = with lib.types; attrsOf (submodule partitionOptions);
       default = { };
-      example = lib.literalExpression '' {
-        "10-esp" = {
-          contents = {
-            "/EFI/BOOT/BOOTX64.EFI".source =
-              "''${pkgs.systemd}/lib/systemd/boot/efi/systemd-bootx64.efi";
-          }
-          repartConfig = {
-            Type = "esp";
-            Format = "fat";
+      example = lib.literalExpression ''
+        {
+          "10-esp" = {
+            contents = {
+              "/EFI/BOOT/BOOTX64.EFI".source =
+                "''${pkgs.systemd}/lib/systemd/boot/efi/systemd-bootx64.efi";
+            }
+            repartConfig = {
+              Type = "esp";
+              Format = "fat";
+            };
           };
-        };
-        "20-root" = {
-          storePaths = [ config.system.build.toplevel ];
-          repartConfig = {
-            Type = "root";
-            Format = "ext4";
-            Minimize = "guess";
+          "20-root" = {
+            storePaths = [ config.system.build.toplevel ];
+            repartConfig = {
+              Type = "root";
+              Format = "ext4";
+              Minimize = "guess";
+            };
           };
         };
-      };
       '';
       description = lib.mdDoc ''
         Specify partitions as a set of the names of the partitions with their
@@ -208,10 +208,7 @@ in
           | tee repart-output.json
       '';
 
-    meta = {
-      maintainers = with lib.maintainers; [ nikstur ];
-      doc = ./repart.md;
-    };
+    meta.maintainers = with lib.maintainers; [ nikstur ];
 
   };
 }
diff --git a/nixos/modules/installer/cd-dvd/channel.nix b/nixos/modules/installer/cd-dvd/channel.nix
index 8426ba8fac000..bc70dc985fe00 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/installer/cd-dvd/channel.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/installer/cd-dvd/channel.nix
@@ -3,8 +3,6 @@
 
 { config, lib, pkgs, ... }:
 
-with lib;
-
 let
   # This is copied into the installer image, so it's important that it is filtered
   # to avoid including a large .git directory.
@@ -27,38 +25,40 @@ let
       if [ ! -e $out/nixos/nixpkgs ]; then
         ln -s . $out/nixos/nixpkgs
       fi
-      ${optionalString (config.system.nixos.revision != null) ''
+      ${lib.optionalString (config.system.nixos.revision != null) ''
         echo -n ${config.system.nixos.revision} > $out/nixos/.git-revision
       ''}
       echo -n ${config.system.nixos.versionSuffix} > $out/nixos/.version-suffix
       echo ${config.system.nixos.versionSuffix} | sed -e s/pre// > $out/nixos/svn-revision
     '';
-
 in
 
 {
-  # Pin the nixpkgs flake in the installer to our cleaned up nixpkgs source.
-  # FIXME: this might be surprising and is really only needed for offline installations,
-  # see discussion in https://github.com/NixOS/nixpkgs/pull/204178#issuecomment-1336289021
-  nix.registry.nixpkgs.to = {
-    type = "path";
-    path = "${channelSources}/nixos";
-  };
+  options.system.installer.channel.enable = (lib.mkEnableOption "bundling NixOS/Nixpkgs channel in the installer") // { default = true; };
+  config = lib.mkIf config.system.installer.channel.enable {
+    # Pin the nixpkgs flake in the installer to our cleaned up nixpkgs source.
+    # FIXME: this might be surprising and is really only needed for offline installations,
+    # see discussion in https://github.com/NixOS/nixpkgs/pull/204178#issuecomment-1336289021
+    nix.registry.nixpkgs.to = {
+      type = "path";
+      path = "${channelSources}/nixos";
+    };
 
-  # Provide the NixOS/Nixpkgs sources in /etc/nixos.  This is required
-  # for nixos-install.
-  boot.postBootCommands = mkAfter
-    ''
-      if ! [ -e /var/lib/nixos/did-channel-init ]; then
-        echo "unpacking the NixOS/Nixpkgs sources..."
-        mkdir -p /nix/var/nix/profiles/per-user/root
-        ${config.nix.package.out}/bin/nix-env -p /nix/var/nix/profiles/per-user/root/channels \
-          -i ${channelSources} --quiet --option build-use-substitutes false \
-          ${optionalString config.boot.initrd.systemd.enable "--option sandbox false"} # There's an issue with pivot_root
-        mkdir -m 0700 -p /root/.nix-defexpr
-        ln -s /nix/var/nix/profiles/per-user/root/channels /root/.nix-defexpr/channels
-        mkdir -m 0755 -p /var/lib/nixos
-        touch /var/lib/nixos/did-channel-init
-      fi
-    '';
+    # Provide the NixOS/Nixpkgs sources in /etc/nixos.  This is required
+    # for nixos-install.
+    boot.postBootCommands = lib.mkAfter
+      ''
+        if ! [ -e /var/lib/nixos/did-channel-init ]; then
+          echo "unpacking the NixOS/Nixpkgs sources..."
+          mkdir -p /nix/var/nix/profiles/per-user/root
+          ${config.nix.package.out}/bin/nix-env -p /nix/var/nix/profiles/per-user/root/channels \
+            -i ${channelSources} --quiet --option build-use-substitutes false \
+            ${lib.optionalString config.boot.initrd.systemd.enable "--option sandbox false"} # There's an issue with pivot_root
+          mkdir -m 0700 -p /root/.nix-defexpr
+          ln -s /nix/var/nix/profiles/per-user/root/channels /root/.nix-defexpr/channels
+          mkdir -m 0755 -p /var/lib/nixos
+          touch /var/lib/nixos/did-channel-init
+        fi
+      '';
+  };
 }
diff --git a/nixos/modules/installer/tools/tools.nix b/nixos/modules/installer/tools/tools.nix
index d385e4a6b1c8e..15e10128ac9a4 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/installer/tools/tools.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/installer/tools/tools.nix
@@ -224,12 +224,22 @@ in
         # accidentally delete configuration.nix.
         # system.copySystemConfiguration = true;
 
-        # This value determines the NixOS release from which the default
-        # settings for stateful data, like file locations and database versions
-        # on your system were taken. It's perfectly fine and recommended to leave
-        # this value at the release version of the first install of this system.
-        # Before changing this value read the documentation for this option
-        # (e.g. man configuration.nix or on https://nixos.org/nixos/options.html).
+        # This option defines the first version of NixOS you have installed on this particular machine,
+        # and is used to maintain compatibility with application data (e.g. databases) created on older NixOS versions.
+        #
+        # Most users should NEVER change this value after the initial install, for any reason,
+        # even if you've upgraded your system to a new NixOS release.
+        #
+        # This value does NOT affect the Nixpkgs version your packages and OS are pulled from,
+        # so changing it will NOT upgrade your system.
+        #
+        # This value being lower than the current NixOS release does NOT mean your system is
+        # out of date, out of support, or vulnerable.
+        #
+        # Do NOT change this value unless you have manually inspected all the changes it would make to your configuration,
+        # and migrated your data accordingly.
+        #
+        # For more information, see `man configuration.nix` or https://nixos.org/manual/nixos/stable/options#opt-system.stateVersion .
         system.stateVersion = "${config.system.nixos.release}"; # Did you read the comment?
 
       }
diff --git a/nixos/modules/installer/virtualbox-demo.nix b/nixos/modules/installer/virtualbox-demo.nix
index 27a7651382b25..01931b2acfca4 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/installer/virtualbox-demo.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/installer/virtualbox-demo.nix
@@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ with lib;
   services.xserver.videoDrivers = mkOverride 40 [ "virtualbox" "vmware" "cirrus" "vesa" "modesetting" ];
 
   powerManagement.enable = false;
-  system.stateVersion = mkDefault "18.03";
+  system.stateVersion = lib.mkDefault lib.trivial.release;
 
   installer.cloneConfigExtra = ''
   # Let demo build as a trusted user.
diff --git a/nixos/modules/misc/version.nix b/nixos/modules/misc/version.nix
index 0a66eafe933ea..45dbf45b3ae70 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/misc/version.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/misc/version.nix
@@ -121,22 +121,32 @@ in
       default = cfg.release;
       defaultText = literalExpression "config.${opt.release}";
       description = lib.mdDoc ''
-        Every once in a while, a new NixOS release may change
-        configuration defaults in a way incompatible with stateful
-        data. For instance, if the default version of PostgreSQL
-        changes, the new version will probably be unable to read your
-        existing databases. To prevent such breakage, you should set the
-        value of this option to the NixOS release with which you want
-        to be compatible. The effect is that NixOS will use
-        defaults corresponding to the specified release (such as using
-        an older version of PostgreSQL).
-        It’s perfectly fine and recommended to leave this value at the
-        release version of the first install of this system.
-        Changing this option will not upgrade your system. In fact it
-        is meant to stay constant exactly when you upgrade your system.
-        You should only bump this option, if you are sure that you can
-        or have migrated all state on your system which is affected
-        by this option.
+        This option defines the first version of NixOS you have installed on this particular machine,
+        and is used to maintain compatibility with application data (e.g. databases) created on older NixOS versions.
+
+        For example, if NixOS version XX.YY ships with AwesomeDB version N by default, and is then
+        upgraded to version XX.YY+1, which ships AwesomeDB version N+1, the existing databases
+        may no longer be compatible, causing applications to fail, or even leading to data loss.
+
+        The `stateVersion` mechanism avoids this situation by making the default version of such packages
+        conditional on the first version of NixOS you've installed (encoded in `stateVersion`), instead of
+        simply always using the latest one.
+
+        Note that this generally only affects applications that can't upgrade their data automatically -
+        applications and services supporting automatic migrations will remain on latest versions when
+        you upgrade.
+
+        Most users should **never** change this value after the initial install, for any reason,
+        even if you've upgraded your system to a new NixOS release.
+
+        This value does **not** affect the Nixpkgs version your packages and OS are pulled from,
+        so changing it will **not** upgrade your system.
+
+        This value being lower than the current NixOS release does **not** mean your system is
+        out of date, out of support, or vulnerable.
+
+        Do **not** change this value unless you have manually inspected all the changes it would
+        make to your configuration, and migrated your data accordingly.
       '';
     };
 
diff --git a/nixos/modules/module-list.nix b/nixos/modules/module-list.nix
index 95b1dce70f94a..44acc011ba19b 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/module-list.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/module-list.nix
@@ -267,6 +267,7 @@
   ./programs/udevil.nix
   ./programs/usbtop.nix
   ./programs/vim.nix
+  ./programs/virt-manager.nix
   ./programs/wavemon.nix
   ./programs/wayland/cardboard.nix
   ./programs/wayland/river.nix
@@ -485,6 +486,7 @@
   ./services/development/hoogle.nix
   ./services/development/jupyter/default.nix
   ./services/development/jupyterhub/default.nix
+  ./services/development/livebook.nix
   ./services/development/lorri.nix
   ./services/development/rstudio-server/default.nix
   ./services/development/zammad.nix
@@ -767,6 +769,7 @@
   ./services/monitoring/below.nix
   ./services/monitoring/bosun.nix
   ./services/monitoring/cadvisor.nix
+  ./services/monitoring/certspotter.nix
   ./services/monitoring/cockpit.nix
   ./services/monitoring/collectd.nix
   ./services/monitoring/das_watchdog.nix
@@ -1174,7 +1177,6 @@
   ./services/security/opensnitch.nix
   ./services/security/pass-secret-service.nix
   ./services/security/physlock.nix
-  ./services/security/privacyidea.nix
   ./services/security/shibboleth-sp.nix
   ./services/security/sks.nix
   ./services/security/sshguard.nix
@@ -1407,6 +1409,7 @@
   ./system/activation/activatable-system.nix
   ./system/activation/activation-script.nix
   ./system/activation/specialisation.nix
+  ./system/activation/switchable-system.nix
   ./system/activation/bootspec.nix
   ./system/activation/top-level.nix
   ./system/boot/binfmt.nix
@@ -1504,6 +1507,7 @@
   ./virtualisation/docker.nix
   ./virtualisation/ecs-agent.nix
   ./virtualisation/hyperv-guest.nix
+  ./virtualisation/incus.nix
   ./virtualisation/kvmgt.nix
   ./virtualisation/libvirtd.nix
   ./virtualisation/lxc.nix
@@ -1528,5 +1532,9 @@
   ./virtualisation/waydroid.nix
   ./virtualisation/xe-guest-utilities.nix
   ./virtualisation/xen-dom0.nix
-  { documentation.nixos.extraModules = [ ./virtualisation/qemu-vm.nix ]; }
+  { documentation.nixos.extraModules = [
+    ./virtualisation/qemu-vm.nix
+    ./image/repart.nix
+    ];
+  }
 ]
diff --git a/nixos/modules/profiles/image-based-appliance.nix b/nixos/modules/profiles/image-based-appliance.nix
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..7e8b6f696d54f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/nixos/modules/profiles/image-based-appliance.nix
@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+# This profile sets up a sytem for image based appliance usage. An appliance is
+# installed as an image, cannot be re-built, has no Nix available, and is
+# generally not meant for interactive use. Updates to such an appliance are
+# handled by updating whole partition images via a tool like systemd-sysupdate.
+
+{ lib, modulesPath, ... }:
+
+{
+
+  # Appliances are always "minimal".
+  imports = [
+    "${modulesPath}/profiles/minimal.nix"
+  ];
+
+  # The system cannot be rebuilt.
+  nix.enable = false;
+  system.switch.enable = false;
+
+  # The system is static.
+  users.mutableUsers = false;
+
+  # The system avoids interpreters as much as possible to reduce its attack
+  # surface.
+  boot.initrd.systemd.enable = lib.mkDefault true;
+  networking.useNetworkd = lib.mkDefault true;
+}
diff --git a/nixos/modules/profiles/minimal.nix b/nixos/modules/profiles/minimal.nix
index bd1b2b4521899..75f355b4a002b 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/profiles/minimal.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/profiles/minimal.nix
@@ -18,6 +18,15 @@ with lib;
 
   documentation.nixos.enable = mkDefault false;
 
+  # Perl is a default package.
+  environment.defaultPackages = mkDefault [ ];
+
+  # The lessopen package pulls in Perl.
+  programs.less.lessopen = mkDefault null;
+
+  # This pulls in nixos-containers which depends on Perl.
+  boot.enableContainers = mkDefault false;
+
   programs.command-not-found.enable = mkDefault false;
 
   services.logrotate.enable = mkDefault false;
diff --git a/nixos/modules/programs/direnv.nix b/nixos/modules/programs/direnv.nix
index 77a6568e73b88..2566fa7699bb5 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/programs/direnv.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/programs/direnv.nix
@@ -54,7 +54,7 @@ in {
   };
 
   imports = [
-    (lib.mkRemovedOptionModule ["programs" "direnv" "persistDerivations"] "persistDerivations was removed as it is on longer necessary")
+    (lib.mkRemovedOptionModule ["programs" "direnv" "persistDerivations"] "persistDerivations was removed as it is no longer necessary")
   ];
 
   config = lib.mkIf cfg.enable {
diff --git a/nixos/modules/programs/firefox.nix b/nixos/modules/programs/firefox.nix
index 85f47530cf5af..1edf935d1649e 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/programs/firefox.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/programs/firefox.nix
@@ -90,7 +90,7 @@ in
       description = mdDoc ''
         Group policies to install.
 
-        See [Mozilla's documentation](https://github.com/mozilla/policy-templates/blob/master/README.md)
+        See [Mozilla's documentation](https://mozilla.github.io/policy-templates/)
         for a list of available options.
 
         This can be used to install extensions declaratively! Check out the
diff --git a/nixos/modules/security/sudo.nix b/nixos/modules/security/sudo.nix
index d225442773c69..c665c15242a53 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/security/sudo.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/security/sudo.nix
@@ -6,8 +6,6 @@ let
 
   cfg = config.security.sudo;
 
-  inherit (pkgs) sudo;
-
   toUserString = user: if (isInt user) then "#${toString user}" else "${user}";
   toGroupString = group: if (isInt group) then "%#${toString group}" else "%${group}";
 
@@ -247,7 +245,7 @@ in
       };
     };
 
-    environment.systemPackages = [ sudo ];
+    environment.systemPackages = [ cfg.package ];
 
     security.pam.services.sudo = { sshAgentAuth = true; usshAuth = true; };
 
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/audio/wyoming/faster-whisper.nix b/nixos/modules/services/audio/wyoming/faster-whisper.nix
index 205e05f2ed176..f156e8314a95f 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/services/audio/wyoming/faster-whisper.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/audio/wyoming/faster-whisper.nix
@@ -138,6 +138,7 @@ in
               --data-dir $STATE_DIRECTORY \
               --download-dir $STATE_DIRECTORY \
               --uri ${options.uri} \
+              --device ${options.device} \
               --model ${options.model} \
               --language ${options.language} \
               --beam-size ${options.beamSize} ${options.extraArgs}
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/audio/wyoming/openwakeword.nix b/nixos/modules/services/audio/wyoming/openwakeword.nix
index 06b7dd585fda1..987818246bde5 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/services/audio/wyoming/openwakeword.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/audio/wyoming/openwakeword.nix
@@ -8,6 +8,7 @@ let
   cfg = config.services.wyoming.openwakeword;
 
   inherit (lib)
+    concatStringsSep
     concatMapStringsSep
     escapeShellArgs
     mkOption
@@ -15,6 +16,7 @@ let
     mkEnableOption
     mkIf
     mkPackageOptionMD
+    mkRemovedOptionModule
     types
     ;
 
@@ -22,18 +24,13 @@ let
     toString
     ;
 
-  models = [
-    # wyoming_openwakeword/models/*.tflite
-    "alexa"
-    "hey_jarvis"
-    "hey_mycroft"
-    "hey_rhasspy"
-    "ok_nabu"
-  ];
-
 in
 
 {
+  imports = [
+    (mkRemovedOptionModule [ "services" "wyoming" "openwakeword" "models" ] "Configuring models has been removed, they are now dynamically discovered and loaded at runtime")
+  ];
+
   meta.buildDocsInSandbox = false;
 
   options.services.wyoming.openwakeword = with types; {
@@ -50,19 +47,27 @@ in
       '';
     };
 
-    models = mkOption {
-      type = listOf (enum models);
-      default = models;
-      description = mdDoc ''
-        List of wake word models that should be made available.
+    customModelsDirectories = mkOption {
+      type = listOf types.path;
+      default = [];
+      description = lib.mdDoc ''
+        Paths to directories with custom wake word models (*.tflite model files).
       '';
     };
 
     preloadModels = mkOption {
-      type = listOf (enum models);
+      type = listOf str;
       default = [
         "ok_nabu"
       ];
+      example = [
+        # wyoming_openwakeword/models/*.tflite
+        "alexa"
+        "hey_jarvis"
+        "hey_mycroft"
+        "hey_rhasspy"
+        "ok_nabu"
+      ];
       description = mdDoc ''
         List of wake word models to preload after startup.
       '';
@@ -114,14 +119,15 @@ in
         DynamicUser = true;
         User = "wyoming-openwakeword";
         # https://github.com/home-assistant/addons/blob/master/openwakeword/rootfs/etc/s6-overlay/s6-rc.d/openwakeword/run
-        ExecStart = ''
-          ${cfg.package}/bin/wyoming-openwakeword \
-            --uri ${cfg.uri} \
-            ${concatMapStringsSep " " (model: "--model ${model}") cfg.models} \
-            ${concatMapStringsSep " " (model: "--preload-model ${model}") cfg.preloadModels} \
-            --threshold ${cfg.threshold} \
-            --trigger-level ${cfg.triggerLevel} ${cfg.extraArgs}
-        '';
+        ExecStart = concatStringsSep " " [
+          "${cfg.package}/bin/wyoming-openwakeword"
+          "--uri ${cfg.uri}"
+          (concatMapStringsSep " " (model: "--preload-model ${model}") cfg.preloadModels)
+          (concatMapStringsSep " " (dir: "--custom-model-dir ${toString dir}") cfg.customModelsDirectories)
+          "--threshold ${cfg.threshold}"
+          "--trigger-level ${cfg.triggerLevel}"
+          "${cfg.extraArgs}"
+        ];
         CapabilityBoundingSet = "";
         DeviceAllow = "";
         DevicePolicy = "closed";
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/backup/postgresql-wal-receiver.nix b/nixos/modules/services/backup/postgresql-wal-receiver.nix
index 01fd57f5c5062..773dc0ba447dd 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/services/backup/postgresql-wal-receiver.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/backup/postgresql-wal-receiver.nix
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ let
     options = {
       postgresqlPackage = mkOption {
         type = types.package;
-        example = literalExpression "pkgs.postgresql_11";
+        example = literalExpression "pkgs.postgresql_15";
         description = lib.mdDoc ''
           PostgreSQL package to use.
         '';
@@ -124,7 +124,7 @@ in {
         example = literalExpression ''
           {
             main = {
-              postgresqlPackage = pkgs.postgresql_11;
+              postgresqlPackage = pkgs.postgresql_15;
               directory = /mnt/pg_wal/main/;
               slot = "main_wal_receiver";
               connection = "postgresql://user@somehost";
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/blockchain/ethereum/erigon.nix b/nixos/modules/services/blockchain/ethereum/erigon.nix
index 8ebe0fcaff549..945a373d12749 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/services/blockchain/ethereum/erigon.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/blockchain/ethereum/erigon.nix
@@ -13,6 +13,8 @@ in {
     services.erigon = {
       enable = mkEnableOption (lib.mdDoc "Ethereum implementation on the efficiency frontier");
 
+      package = mkPackageOptionMD pkgs "erigon" { };
+
       extraArgs = mkOption {
         type = types.listOf types.str;
         description = lib.mdDoc "Additional arguments passed to Erigon";
@@ -92,7 +94,7 @@ in {
 
       serviceConfig = {
         LoadCredential = "ERIGON_JWT:${cfg.secretJwtPath}";
-        ExecStart = "${pkgs.erigon}/bin/erigon --config ${configFile} --authrpc.jwtsecret=%d/ERIGON_JWT ${lib.escapeShellArgs cfg.extraArgs}";
+        ExecStart = "${cfg.package}/bin/erigon --config ${configFile} --authrpc.jwtsecret=%d/ERIGON_JWT ${lib.escapeShellArgs cfg.extraArgs}";
         DynamicUser = true;
         Restart = "on-failure";
         StateDirectory = "erigon";
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/continuous-integration/woodpecker/server.nix b/nixos/modules/services/continuous-integration/woodpecker/server.nix
index cae5ed7cf1161..38b42f7288c05 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/services/continuous-integration/woodpecker/server.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/continuous-integration/woodpecker/server.nix
@@ -31,9 +31,9 @@ in
         description = lib.mdDoc "woodpecker-server config environment variables, for other options read the [documentation](https://woodpecker-ci.org/docs/administration/server-config)";
       };
       environmentFile = lib.mkOption {
-        type = lib.types.nullOr lib.types.path;
-        default = null;
-        example = "/root/woodpecker-server.env";
+        type = with lib.types; coercedTo path (f: [ f ]) (listOf path);
+        default = [ ];
+        example = [ "/root/woodpecker-server.env" ];
         description = lib.mdDoc ''
           File to load environment variables
           from. This is helpful for specifying secrets.
@@ -61,7 +61,7 @@ in
           StateDirectoryMode = "0700";
           UMask = "0007";
           ConfigurationDirectory = "woodpecker-server";
-          EnvironmentFile = lib.optional (cfg.environmentFile != null) cfg.environmentFile;
+          EnvironmentFile = cfg.environmentFile;
           ExecStart = "${cfg.package}/bin/woodpecker-server";
           Restart = "on-failure";
           RestartSec = 15;
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/databases/postgresql.md b/nixos/modules/services/databases/postgresql.md
index 4d66ee38be426..e4b679a3eee00 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/services/databases/postgresql.md
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/databases/postgresql.md
@@ -17,9 +17,9 @@ PostgreSQL is an advanced, free relational database.
 To enable PostgreSQL, add the following to your {file}`configuration.nix`:
 ```
 services.postgresql.enable = true;
-services.postgresql.package = pkgs.postgresql_11;
+services.postgresql.package = pkgs.postgresql_15;
 ```
-Note that you are required to specify the desired version of PostgreSQL (e.g. `pkgs.postgresql_11`). Since upgrading your PostgreSQL version requires a database dump and reload (see below), NixOS cannot provide a default value for [](#opt-services.postgresql.package) such as the most recent release of PostgreSQL.
+Note that you are required to specify the desired version of PostgreSQL (e.g. `pkgs.postgresql_15`). Since upgrading your PostgreSQL version requires a database dump and reload (see below), NixOS cannot provide a default value for [](#opt-services.postgresql.package) such as the most recent release of PostgreSQL.
 
 <!--
 After running {command}`nixos-rebuild`, you can verify
@@ -119,27 +119,27 @@ A complete list of options for the PostgreSQL module may be found [here](#opt-se
 
 ## Plugins {#module-services-postgres-plugins}
 
-Plugins collection for each PostgreSQL version can be accessed with `.pkgs`. For example, for `pkgs.postgresql_11` package, its plugin collection is accessed by `pkgs.postgresql_11.pkgs`:
+Plugins collection for each PostgreSQL version can be accessed with `.pkgs`. For example, for `pkgs.postgresql_15` package, its plugin collection is accessed by `pkgs.postgresql_15.pkgs`:
 ```ShellSession
 $ nix repl '<nixpkgs>'
 
 Loading '<nixpkgs>'...
 Added 10574 variables.
 
-nix-repl> postgresql_11.pkgs.<TAB><TAB>
-postgresql_11.pkgs.cstore_fdw        postgresql_11.pkgs.pg_repack
-postgresql_11.pkgs.pg_auto_failover  postgresql_11.pkgs.pg_safeupdate
-postgresql_11.pkgs.pg_bigm           postgresql_11.pkgs.pg_similarity
-postgresql_11.pkgs.pg_cron           postgresql_11.pkgs.pg_topn
-postgresql_11.pkgs.pg_hll            postgresql_11.pkgs.pgjwt
-postgresql_11.pkgs.pg_partman        postgresql_11.pkgs.pgroonga
+nix-repl> postgresql_15.pkgs.<TAB><TAB>
+postgresql_15.pkgs.cstore_fdw        postgresql_15.pkgs.pg_repack
+postgresql_15.pkgs.pg_auto_failover  postgresql_15.pkgs.pg_safeupdate
+postgresql_15.pkgs.pg_bigm           postgresql_15.pkgs.pg_similarity
+postgresql_15.pkgs.pg_cron           postgresql_15.pkgs.pg_topn
+postgresql_15.pkgs.pg_hll            postgresql_15.pkgs.pgjwt
+postgresql_15.pkgs.pg_partman        postgresql_15.pkgs.pgroonga
 ...
 ```
 
 To add plugins via NixOS configuration, set `services.postgresql.extraPlugins`:
 ```
-services.postgresql.package = pkgs.postgresql_11;
-services.postgresql.extraPlugins = with pkgs.postgresql_11.pkgs; [
+services.postgresql.package = pkgs.postgresql_12;
+services.postgresql.extraPlugins = with pkgs.postgresql_12.pkgs; [
   pg_repack
   postgis
 ];
@@ -148,7 +148,7 @@ services.postgresql.extraPlugins = with pkgs.postgresql_11.pkgs; [
 You can build custom PostgreSQL-with-plugins (to be used outside of NixOS) using function `.withPackages`. For example, creating a custom PostgreSQL package in an overlay can look like:
 ```
 self: super: {
-  postgresql_custom = self.postgresql_11.withPackages (ps: [
+  postgresql_custom = self.postgresql_12.withPackages (ps: [
     ps.pg_repack
     ps.postgis
   ]);
@@ -158,9 +158,9 @@ self: super: {
 Here's a recipe on how to override a particular plugin through an overlay:
 ```
 self: super: {
-  postgresql_11 = super.postgresql_11.override { this = self.postgresql_11; } // {
-    pkgs = super.postgresql_11.pkgs // {
-      pg_repack = super.postgresql_11.pkgs.pg_repack.overrideAttrs (_: {
+  postgresql_15 = super.postgresql_15.override { this = self.postgresql_15; } // {
+    pkgs = super.postgresql_15.pkgs // {
+      pg_repack = super.postgresql_15.pkgs.pg_repack.overrideAttrs (_: {
         name = "pg_repack-v20181024";
         src = self.fetchzip {
           url = "https://github.com/reorg/pg_repack/archive/923fa2f3c709a506e111cc963034bf2fd127aa00.tar.gz";
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/databases/postgresql.nix b/nixos/modules/services/databases/postgresql.nix
index 2d4ef05631823..21e6a60e32a35 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/services/databases/postgresql.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/databases/postgresql.nix
@@ -55,7 +55,7 @@ in
 
       package = mkOption {
         type = types.package;
-        example = literalExpression "pkgs.postgresql_11";
+        example = literalExpression "pkgs.postgresql_15";
         description = lib.mdDoc ''
           PostgreSQL package to use.
         '';
@@ -78,7 +78,7 @@ in
       dataDir = mkOption {
         type = types.path;
         defaultText = literalExpression ''"/var/lib/postgresql/''${config.services.postgresql.package.psqlSchema}"'';
-        example = "/var/lib/postgresql/11";
+        example = "/var/lib/postgresql/15";
         description = lib.mdDoc ''
           The data directory for PostgreSQL. If left as the default value
           this directory will automatically be created before the PostgreSQL server starts, otherwise
@@ -387,7 +387,7 @@ in
       extraPlugins = mkOption {
         type = types.listOf types.path;
         default = [];
-        example = literalExpression "with pkgs.postgresql_11.pkgs; [ postgis pg_repack ]";
+        example = literalExpression "with pkgs.postgresql_15.pkgs; [ postgis pg_repack ]";
         description = lib.mdDoc ''
           List of PostgreSQL plugins. PostgreSQL version for each plugin should
           match version for `services.postgresql.package` value.
@@ -399,7 +399,7 @@ in
         default = {};
         description = lib.mdDoc ''
           PostgreSQL configuration. Refer to
-          <https://www.postgresql.org/docs/11/config-setting.html#CONFIG-SETTING-CONFIGURATION-FILE>
+          <https://www.postgresql.org/docs/15/config-setting.html#CONFIG-SETTING-CONFIGURATION-FILE>
           for an overview of `postgresql.conf`.
 
           ::: {.note}
@@ -461,7 +461,7 @@ in
         base = if versionAtLeast config.system.stateVersion "23.11" then pkgs.postgresql_15
             else if versionAtLeast config.system.stateVersion "22.05" then pkgs.postgresql_14
             else if versionAtLeast config.system.stateVersion "21.11" then pkgs.postgresql_13
-            else if versionAtLeast config.system.stateVersion "20.03" then pkgs.postgresql_11
+            else if versionAtLeast config.system.stateVersion "20.03" then mkThrow "11"
             else if versionAtLeast config.system.stateVersion "17.09" then mkThrow "9_6"
             else mkThrow "9_5";
     in
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/development/livebook.md b/nixos/modules/services/development/livebook.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..73ddc57f6179a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/development/livebook.md
@@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
+# Livebook {#module-services-livebook}
+
+[Livebook](https://livebook.dev/) is a web application for writing
+interactive and collaborative code notebooks.
+
+## Basic Usage {#module-services-livebook-basic-usage}
+
+Enabling the `livebook` service creates a user
+[`systemd`](https://www.freedesktop.org/wiki/Software/systemd/) unit
+which runs the server.
+
+```
+{ ... }:
+
+{
+  services.livebook = {
+    enableUserService = true;
+    port = 20123;
+    # See note below about security
+    environmentFile = pkgs.writeText "livebook.env" ''
+      LIVEBOOK_PASSWORD = "xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx";
+    '';
+  };
+}
+```
+
+::: {.note}
+
+The Livebook server has the ability to run any command as the user it
+is running under, so securing access to it with a password is highly
+recommended.
+
+Putting the password in the Nix configuration like above is an easy
+way to get started but it is not recommended in the real world because
+the `livebook.env` file will be added to the world-readable Nix store.
+A better approach would be to put the password in some secure
+user-readable location and set `environmentFile = /home/user/secure/livebook.env`.
+
+:::
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/development/livebook.nix b/nixos/modules/services/development/livebook.nix
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..3991a4125ec39
--- /dev/null
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/development/livebook.nix
@@ -0,0 +1,90 @@
+{ config, lib, pkgs, ... }:
+
+with lib;
+let
+  cfg = config.services.livebook;
+in
+{
+  options.services.livebook = {
+    # Since livebook doesn't have a granular permission system (a user
+    # either has access to all the data or none at all), the decision
+    # was made to run this as a user service.  If that changes in the
+    # future, this can be changed to a system service.
+    enableUserService = mkEnableOption "a user service for Livebook";
+
+    environmentFile = mkOption {
+      type = types.path;
+      description = lib.mdDoc ''
+        Environment file as defined in {manpage}`systemd.exec(5)` passed to the service.
+
+        This must contain at least `LIVEBOOK_PASSWORD` or
+        `LIVEBOOK_TOKEN_ENABLED=false`.  See `livebook server --help`
+        for other options.'';
+    };
+
+    erlang_node_short_name = mkOption {
+      type = with types; nullOr str;
+      default = null;
+      example = "livebook";
+      description = "A short name for the distributed node.";
+    };
+
+    erlang_node_name = mkOption {
+      type = with types; nullOr str;
+      default = null;
+      example = "livebook@127.0.0.1";
+      description = "The name for the app distributed node.";
+    };
+
+    port = mkOption {
+      type = types.port;
+      default = 8080;
+      description = "The port to start the web application on.";
+    };
+
+    address = mkOption {
+      type = types.str;
+      default = "127.0.0.1";
+      description = lib.mdDoc ''
+        The address to start the web application on.  Must be a valid IPv4 or
+        IPv6 address.
+      '';
+    };
+
+    options = mkOption {
+      type = with types; attrsOf str;
+      default = { };
+      description = lib.mdDoc ''
+        Additional options to pass as command-line arguments to the server.
+      '';
+      example = literalExpression ''
+        {
+          cookie = "a value shared by all nodes in this cluster";
+        }
+      '';
+    };
+  };
+
+  config = mkIf cfg.enableUserService {
+    systemd.user.services.livebook = {
+      serviceConfig = {
+        Restart = "always";
+        EnvironmentFile = cfg.environmentFile;
+        ExecStart =
+          let
+            args = lib.cli.toGNUCommandLineShell { } ({
+              inherit (cfg) port;
+              ip = cfg.address;
+              name = cfg.erlang_node_name;
+              sname = cfg.erlang_node_short_name;
+            } // cfg.options);
+          in
+          "${pkgs.livebook}/bin/livebook server ${args}";
+      };
+      path = [ pkgs.bash ];
+      wantedBy = [ "default.target" ];
+    };
+  };
+
+  meta.doc = ./livebook.md;
+}
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/hardware/fwupd.nix b/nixos/modules/services/hardware/fwupd.nix
index 4e5913fd27515..7a938459d0cb5 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/services/hardware/fwupd.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/hardware/fwupd.nix
@@ -181,7 +181,18 @@ in {
     # required to update the firmware of disks
     services.udisks2.enable = true;
 
-    systemd.packages = [ cfg.package ];
+    systemd = {
+      packages = [ cfg.package ];
+
+      # fwupd-refresh expects a user that we do not create, so just run with DynamicUser
+      # instead and ensure we take ownership of /var/lib/fwupd
+      services.fwupd-refresh.serviceConfig = {
+        DynamicUser = true;
+        StateDirectory = "fwupd";
+      };
+
+      timers.fwupd-refresh.wantedBy = [ "timers.target" ];
+    };
 
     security.polkit.enable = true;
   };
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/hardware/throttled.nix b/nixos/modules/services/hardware/throttled.nix
index 9fa4958861198..0f1f00348ee8d 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/services/hardware/throttled.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/hardware/throttled.nix
@@ -27,6 +27,7 @@ in {
       then pkgs.writeText "throttled.conf" cfg.extraConfig
       else "${pkgs.throttled}/etc/throttled.conf";
 
+    hardware.cpu.x86.msr.enable = true;
     # Kernel 5.9 spams warnings whenever userspace writes to CPU MSRs.
     # See https://github.com/erpalma/throttled/issues/215
     hardware.cpu.x86.msr.settings.allow-writes =
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/hardware/udev.nix b/nixos/modules/services/hardware/udev.nix
index 56120094871cc..24987374ab0d6 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/services/hardware/udev.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/hardware/udev.nix
@@ -350,7 +350,7 @@ in
 
     boot.kernelParams = mkIf (!config.networking.usePredictableInterfaceNames) [ "net.ifnames=0" ];
 
-    boot.initrd.extraUdevRulesCommands = optionalString (!config.boot.initrd.systemd.enable && config.boot.initrd.services.udev.rules != "")
+    boot.initrd.extraUdevRulesCommands = mkIf (!config.boot.initrd.systemd.enable && config.boot.initrd.services.udev.rules != "")
       ''
         cat <<'EOF' > $out/99-local.rules
         ${config.boot.initrd.services.udev.rules}
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/home-automation/home-assistant.nix b/nixos/modules/services/home-automation/home-assistant.nix
index 0e6fa65667af0..789b06af19b1c 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/services/home-automation/home-assistant.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/home-automation/home-assistant.nix
@@ -455,6 +455,7 @@ in {
           "govee_ble"
           "homekit_controller"
           "inkbird"
+          "improv_ble"
           "keymitt_ble"
           "led_ble"
           "medcom_ble"
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/logging/syslog-ng.nix b/nixos/modules/services/logging/syslog-ng.nix
index d22acbeaa70c5..48d556b9459e5 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/services/logging/syslog-ng.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/logging/syslog-ng.nix
@@ -67,7 +67,7 @@ in {
       configHeader = mkOption {
         type = types.lines;
         default = ''
-          @version: 3.6
+          @version: 4.4
           @include "scl.conf"
         '';
         description = lib.mdDoc ''
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/misc/paperless.nix b/nixos/modules/services/misc/paperless.nix
index 9b8bd62809c5b..1e0a8d0f928e0 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/services/misc/paperless.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/misc/paperless.nix
@@ -332,12 +332,28 @@ in
       # during migrations
       bindsTo = [ "paperless-scheduler.service" ];
       after = [ "paperless-scheduler.service" ];
+      # Setup PAPERLESS_SECRET_KEY.
+      # If this environment variable is left unset, paperless-ngx defaults
+      # to a well-known value, which is insecure.
+      script = let
+        secretKeyFile = "${cfg.dataDir}/nixos-paperless-secret-key";
+      in ''
+        if [[ ! -f '${secretKeyFile}' ]]; then
+          (
+            umask 0377
+            tr -dc A-Za-z0-9 < /dev/urandom | head -c64 | ${pkgs.moreutils}/bin/sponge '${secretKeyFile}'
+          )
+        fi
+        export PAPERLESS_SECRET_KEY=$(cat '${secretKeyFile}')
+        if [[ ! $PAPERLESS_SECRET_KEY ]]; then
+          echo "PAPERLESS_SECRET_KEY is empty, refusing to start."
+          exit 1
+        fi
+        exec ${pkg.python.pkgs.gunicorn}/bin/gunicorn \
+          -c ${pkg}/lib/paperless-ngx/gunicorn.conf.py paperless.asgi:application
+      '';
       serviceConfig = defaultServiceConfig // {
         User = cfg.user;
-        ExecStart = ''
-          ${pkg.python.pkgs.gunicorn}/bin/gunicorn \
-            -c ${pkg}/lib/paperless-ngx/gunicorn.conf.py paperless.asgi:application
-        '';
         Restart = "on-failure";
 
         # gunicorn needs setuid, liblapack needs mbind
@@ -349,7 +365,6 @@ in
         CapabilityBoundingSet = [ "CAP_NET_BIND_SERVICE" ];
       };
       environment = env // {
-        PATH = mkForce pkg.path;
         PYTHONPATH = "${pkg.python.pkgs.makePythonPath pkg.propagatedBuildInputs}:${pkg}/lib/paperless-ngx/src";
       };
       # Allow the web interface to access the private /tmp directory of the server.
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/misc/xmrig.nix b/nixos/modules/services/misc/xmrig.nix
index 05e63c773205a..f75b47ffecedb 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/services/misc/xmrig.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/misc/xmrig.nix
@@ -59,8 +59,8 @@ with lib;
       after = [ "network.target" ];
       description = "XMRig Mining Software Service";
       serviceConfig = {
-        ExecStartPre = "${cfg.package}/bin/xmrig --config=${configFile} --dry-run";
-        ExecStart = "${cfg.package}/bin/xmrig --config=${configFile}";
+        ExecStartPre = "${lib.getExe cfg.package} --config=${configFile} --dry-run";
+        ExecStart = "${lib.getExe cfg.package} --config=${configFile}";
         # https://xmrig.com/docs/miner/randomx-optimization-guide/msr
         # If you use recent XMRig with root privileges (Linux) or admin
         # privileges (Windows) the miner configure all MSR registers
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/monitoring/certspotter.md b/nixos/modules/services/monitoring/certspotter.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..9bf6e1d946a04
--- /dev/null
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/monitoring/certspotter.md
@@ -0,0 +1,74 @@
+# Cert Spotter {#module-services-certspotter}
+
+Cert Spotter is a tool for monitoring [Certificate Transparency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certificate_Transparency)
+logs.
+
+## Service Configuration {#modules-services-certspotter-service-configuration}
+
+A basic config that notifies you of all certificate changes for your
+domain would look as follows:
+
+```nix
+services.certspotter = {
+  enable = true;
+  # replace example.org with your domain name
+  watchlist = [ ".example.org" ];
+  emailRecipients = [ "webmaster@example.org" ];
+};
+
+# Configure an SMTP client
+programs.msmtp.enable = true;
+# Or you can use any other module that provides sendmail, like
+# services.nullmailer, services.opensmtpd, services.postfix
+```
+
+In this case, the leading dot in `".example.org"` means that Cert
+Spotter should monitor not only `example.org`, but also all of its
+subdomains.
+
+## Operation {#modules-services-certspotter-operation}
+
+**By default, NixOS configures Cert Spotter to skip all certificates
+issued before its first launch**, because checking the entire
+Certificate Transparency logs requires downloading tens of terabytes of
+data. If you want to check the *entire* logs for previously issued
+certificates, you have to set `services.certspotter.startAtEnd` to
+`false` and remove all previously saved log state in
+`/var/lib/certspotter/logs`. The downloaded logs aren't saved, so if you
+add a new domain to the watchlist and want Cert Spotter to go through
+the logs again, you will have to remove `/var/lib/certspotter/logs`
+again.
+
+After catching up with the logs, Cert Spotter will start monitoring live
+logs. As of October 2023, it uses around **20 Mbps** of traffic on
+average.
+
+## Hooks {#modules-services-certspotter-hooks}
+
+Cert Spotter supports running custom hooks instead of (or in addition
+to) sending emails. Hooks are shell scripts that will be passed certain
+environment variables.
+
+To see hook documentation, see Cert Spotter's man pages:
+
+```ShellSession
+nix-shell -p certspotter --run 'man 8 certspotter-script'
+```
+
+For example, you can remove `emailRecipients` and send email
+notifications manually using the following hook:
+
+```nix
+services.certspotter.hooks = [
+  (pkgs.writeShellScript "certspotter-hook" ''
+    function print_email() {
+      echo "Subject: [certspotter] $SUMMARY"
+      echo "Mime-Version: 1.0"
+      echo "Content-Type: text/plain; charset=US-ASCII"
+      echo
+      cat "$TEXT_FILENAME"
+    }
+    print_email | ${config.services.certspotter.sendmailPath} -i webmaster@example.org
+  '')
+];
+```
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/monitoring/certspotter.nix b/nixos/modules/services/monitoring/certspotter.nix
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..aafa29daa872c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/monitoring/certspotter.nix
@@ -0,0 +1,143 @@
+{ config
+, lib
+, pkgs
+, ... }:
+
+let
+  cfg = config.services.certspotter;
+
+  configDir = pkgs.linkFarm "certspotter-config" (
+    lib.toList {
+      name = "watchlist";
+      path = pkgs.writeText "certspotter-watchlist" (builtins.concatStringsSep "\n" cfg.watchlist);
+    }
+    ++ lib.optional (cfg.emailRecipients != [ ]) {
+      name = "email_recipients";
+      path = pkgs.writeText "certspotter-email_recipients" (builtins.concatStringsSep "\n" cfg.emailRecipients);
+    }
+    # always generate hooks dir when no emails are provided to allow running cert spotter with no hooks/emails
+    ++ lib.optional (cfg.emailRecipients == [ ] || cfg.hooks != [ ]) {
+      name = "hooks.d";
+      path = pkgs.linkFarm "certspotter-hooks" (lib.imap1 (i: path: {
+        inherit path;
+        name = "hook${toString i}";
+      }) cfg.hooks);
+    });
+in
+{
+  options.services.certspotter = {
+    enable = lib.mkEnableOption "Cert Spotter, a Certificate Transparency log monitor";
+
+    package = lib.mkPackageOptionMD pkgs "certspotter" { };
+
+    startAtEnd = lib.mkOption {
+      type = lib.types.bool;
+      description = ''
+        Whether to skip certificates issued before the first launch of Cert Spotter.
+        Setting this to `false` will cause Cert Spotter to download tens of terabytes of data.
+      '';
+      default = true;
+    };
+
+    sendmailPath = lib.mkOption {
+      type = with lib.types; nullOr path;
+      description = ''
+        Path to the `sendmail` binary. By default, the local sendmail wrapper is used
+        (see {option}`services.mail.sendmailSetuidWrapper`}).
+      '';
+      example = lib.literalExpression ''"''${pkgs.system-sendmail}/bin/sendmail"'';
+    };
+
+    watchlist = lib.mkOption {
+      type = with lib.types; listOf str;
+      description = "Domain names to watch. To monitor a domain with all subdomains, prefix its name with `.` (e.g. `.example.org`).";
+      default = [ ];
+      example = [ ".example.org" "another.example.com" ];
+    };
+
+    emailRecipients = lib.mkOption {
+      type = with lib.types; listOf str;
+      description = "A list of email addresses to send certificate updates to.";
+      default = [ ];
+    };
+
+    hooks = lib.mkOption {
+      type = with lib.types; listOf path;
+      description = ''
+        Scripts to run upon the detection of a new certificate. See `man 8 certspotter-script` or
+        [the GitHub page](https://github.com/SSLMate/certspotter/blob/${pkgs.certspotter.src.rev or "master"}/man/certspotter-script.md)
+        for more info.
+      '';
+      default = [ ];
+      example = lib.literalExpression ''
+        [
+          (pkgs.writeShellScript "certspotter-hook" '''
+            echo "Event summary: $SUMMARY."
+          ''')
+        ]
+      '';
+    };
+
+    extraFlags = lib.mkOption {
+      type = with lib.types; listOf str;
+      description = "Extra command-line arguments to pass to Cert Spotter";
+      example = [ "-no_save" ];
+      default = [ ];
+    };
+  };
+
+  config = lib.mkIf cfg.enable {
+    assertions = [
+      {
+        assertion = (cfg.emailRecipients != [ ]) -> (cfg.sendmailPath != null);
+        message = ''
+          You must configure the sendmail setuid wrapper (services.mail.sendmailSetuidWrapper)
+          or services.certspotter.sendmailPath
+        '';
+      }
+    ];
+
+    services.certspotter.sendmailPath = let
+      inherit (config.security) wrapperDir;
+      inherit (config.services.mail) sendmailSetuidWrapper;
+    in lib.mkMerge [
+      (lib.mkIf (sendmailSetuidWrapper != null) (lib.mkOptionDefault "${wrapperDir}/${sendmailSetuidWrapper.program}"))
+      (lib.mkIf (sendmailSetuidWrapper == null) (lib.mkOptionDefault null))
+    ];
+
+    users.users.certspotter = {
+      description = "Cert Spotter user";
+      group = "certspotter";
+      home = "/var/lib/certspotter";
+      isSystemUser = true;
+    };
+    users.groups.certspotter = { };
+
+    systemd.services.certspotter = {
+      description = "Cert Spotter - Certificate Transparency Monitor";
+      after = [ "network.target" ];
+      wantedBy = [ "multi-user.target" ];
+      environment.CERTSPOTTER_CONFIG_DIR = configDir;
+      environment.SENDMAIL_PATH = if cfg.sendmailPath != null then cfg.sendmailPath else "/run/current-system/sw/bin/false";
+      script = ''
+        export CERTSPOTTER_STATE_DIR="$STATE_DIRECTORY"
+        cd "$CERTSPOTTER_STATE_DIR"
+        ${lib.optionalString cfg.startAtEnd ''
+          if [[ ! -d logs ]]; then
+            # Don't download certificates issued before the first launch
+            exec ${cfg.package}/bin/certspotter -start_at_end ${lib.escapeShellArgs cfg.extraFlags}
+          fi
+        ''}
+        exec ${cfg.package}/bin/certspotter ${lib.escapeShellArgs cfg.extraFlags}
+      '';
+      serviceConfig = {
+        User = "certspotter";
+        Group = "certspotter";
+        StateDirectory = "certspotter";
+      };
+    };
+  };
+
+  meta.maintainers = with lib.maintainers; [ chayleaf ];
+  meta.doc = ./certspotter.md;
+}
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/monitoring/grafana-image-renderer.nix b/nixos/modules/services/monitoring/grafana-image-renderer.nix
index 36258866646ab..afe9eb4d7b959 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/services/monitoring/grafana-image-renderer.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/monitoring/grafana-image-renderer.nix
@@ -108,7 +108,7 @@ in {
 
     services.grafana.settings.rendering = mkIf cfg.provisionGrafana {
       server_url = "http://localhost:${toString cfg.settings.service.port}/render";
-      callback_url = "http://localhost:${toString config.services.grafana.settings.server.http_port}";
+      callback_url = "http://${config.services.grafana.settings.server.http_addr}:${toString config.services.grafana.settings.server.http_port}";
     };
 
     services.grafana-image-renderer.chromium = mkDefault pkgs.chromium;
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/networking/bitcoind.nix b/nixos/modules/services/networking/bitcoind.nix
index a86d52b7202d8..a48066b43b162 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/services/networking/bitcoind.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/networking/bitcoind.nix
@@ -3,8 +3,7 @@
 with lib;
 
 let
-
-  eachBitcoind = config.services.bitcoind;
+  eachBitcoind = filterAttrs (bitcoindName: cfg: cfg.enable) config.services.bitcoind;
 
   rpcUserOpts = { name, ... }: {
     options = {
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/networking/gvpe.nix b/nixos/modules/services/networking/gvpe.nix
index 2279ceee2f58e..558f499022c81 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/services/networking/gvpe.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/networking/gvpe.nix
@@ -29,7 +29,7 @@ let
 
       export PATH=$PATH:${pkgs.iproute2}/sbin
 
-      ip link set $IFNAME up
+      ip link set dev $IFNAME up
       ip address add ${cfg.ipAddress} dev $IFNAME
       ip route add ${cfg.subnet} dev $IFNAME
 
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/networking/multipath.nix b/nixos/modules/services/networking/multipath.nix
index bd403e109c2af..9099cbe0cd32a 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/services/networking/multipath.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/networking/multipath.nix
@@ -546,8 +546,9 @@ in {
     # We do not have systemd in stage-1 boot so must invoke `multipathd`
     # with the `-1` argument which disables systemd calls. Invoke `multipath`
     # to display the multipath mappings in the output of `journalctl -b`.
+    # TODO: Implement for systemd stage 1
     boot.initrd.kernelModules = [ "dm-multipath" "dm-service-time" ];
-    boot.initrd.postDeviceCommands = ''
+    boot.initrd.postDeviceCommands = mkIf (!config.boot.initrd.systemd.enable) ''
       modprobe -a dm-multipath dm-service-time
       multipathd -s
       (set -x && sleep 1 && multipath -ll)
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/networking/ssh/sshd.nix b/nixos/modules/services/networking/ssh/sshd.nix
index daa30fe09b896..f54ce59174387 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/services/networking/ssh/sshd.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/networking/ssh/sshd.nix
@@ -12,22 +12,44 @@ let
     then cfgc.package
     else pkgs.buildPackages.openssh;
 
-  # reports boolean as yes / no
-  mkValueStringSshd = with lib; v:
-        if isInt           v then toString v
-        else if isString   v then v
-        else if true  ==   v then "yes"
-        else if false ==   v then "no"
-        else if isList     v then concatStringsSep "," v
-        else throw "unsupported type ${builtins.typeOf v}: ${(lib.generators.toPretty {}) v}";
-
   # dont use the "=" operator
-  settingsFormat = (pkgs.formats.keyValue {
-      mkKeyValue = lib.generators.mkKeyValueDefault {
-      mkValueString = mkValueStringSshd;
-    } " ";});
+  settingsFormat =
+    let
+      # reports boolean as yes / no
+      mkValueString = with lib; v:
+            if isInt           v then toString v
+            else if isString   v then v
+            else if true  ==   v then "yes"
+            else if false ==   v then "no"
+            else throw "unsupported type ${builtins.typeOf v}: ${(lib.generators.toPretty {}) v}";
+
+      base = pkgs.formats.keyValue {
+        mkKeyValue = lib.generators.mkKeyValueDefault { inherit mkValueString; } " ";
+      };
+      # OpenSSH is very inconsistent with options that can take multiple values.
+      # For some of them, they can simply appear multiple times and are appended, for others the
+      # values must be separated by whitespace or even commas.
+      # Consult either sshd_config(5) or, as last resort, the OpehSSH source for parsing
+      # the options at servconf.c:process_server_config_line_depth() to determine the right "mode"
+      # for each. But fortunaly this fact is documented for most of them in the manpage.
+      commaSeparated = [ "Ciphers" "KexAlgorithms" "Macs" ];
+      spaceSeparated = [ "AuthorizedKeysFile" "AllowGroups" "AllowUsers" "DenyGroups" "DenyUsers" ];
+    in {
+      inherit (base) type;
+      generate = name: value:
+        let transformedValue = mapAttrs (key: val:
+          if isList val then
+            if elem key commaSeparated then concatStringsSep "," val
+            else if elem key spaceSeparated then concatStringsSep " " val
+            else throw "list value for unknown key ${key}: ${(lib.generators.toPretty {}) val}"
+          else
+            val
+          ) value;
+        in
+          base.generate name transformedValue;
+    };
 
-  configFile = settingsFormat.generate "sshd.conf-settings" cfg.settings;
+  configFile = settingsFormat.generate "sshd.conf-settings" (filterAttrs (n: v: v != null) cfg.settings);
   sshconf = pkgs.runCommand "sshd.conf-final" { } ''
     cat ${configFile} - >$out <<EOL
     ${cfg.extraConfig}
@@ -431,6 +453,42 @@ in
                 <https://infosec.mozilla.org/guidelines/openssh#modern-openssh-67>
               '';
             };
+            AllowUsers = mkOption {
+              type = with types; nullOr (listOf str);
+              default = null;
+              description = lib.mdDoc ''
+                If specified, login is allowed only for the listed users.
+                See {manpage}`sshd_config(5)` for details.
+              '';
+            };
+            DenyUsers = mkOption {
+              type = with types; nullOr (listOf str);
+              default = null;
+              description = lib.mdDoc ''
+                If specified, login is denied for all listed users. Takes
+                precedence over [](#opt-services.openssh.settings.AllowUsers).
+                See {manpage}`sshd_config(5)` for details.
+              '';
+            };
+            AllowGroups = mkOption {
+              type = with types; nullOr (listOf str);
+              default = null;
+              description = lib.mdDoc ''
+                If specified, login is allowed only for users part of the
+                listed groups.
+                See {manpage}`sshd_config(5)` for details.
+              '';
+            };
+            DenyGroups = mkOption {
+              type = with types; nullOr (listOf str);
+              default = null;
+              description = lib.mdDoc ''
+                If specified, login is denied for all users part of the listed
+                groups. Takes precedence over
+                [](#opt-services.openssh.settings.AllowGroups). See
+                {manpage}`sshd_config(5)` for details.
+              '';
+            };
           };
         });
       };
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/networking/sslh.nix b/nixos/modules/services/networking/sslh.nix
index daf2f2f3668ee..dd29db510020a 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/services/networking/sslh.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/networking/sslh.nix
@@ -5,81 +5,131 @@ with lib;
 let
   cfg = config.services.sslh;
   user = "sslh";
-  configFile = pkgs.writeText "sslh.conf" ''
-    verbose: ${boolToString cfg.verbose};
-    foreground: true;
-    inetd: false;
-    numeric: false;
-    transparent: ${boolToString cfg.transparent};
-    timeout: "${toString cfg.timeout}";
-
-    listen:
-    (
-      ${
-        concatMapStringsSep ",\n"
-        (addr: ''{ host: "${addr}"; port: "${toString cfg.port}"; }'')
-        cfg.listenAddresses
-      }
-    );
-
-    ${cfg.appendConfig}
-  '';
-  defaultAppendConfig = ''
-    protocols:
-    (
-      { name: "ssh"; service: "ssh"; host: "localhost"; port: "22"; probe: "builtin"; },
-      { name: "openvpn"; host: "localhost"; port: "1194"; probe: "builtin"; },
-      { name: "xmpp"; host: "localhost"; port: "5222"; probe: "builtin"; },
-      { name: "http"; host: "localhost"; port: "80"; probe: "builtin"; },
-      { name: "tls"; host: "localhost"; port: "443"; probe: "builtin"; },
-      { name: "anyprot"; host: "localhost"; port: "443"; probe: "builtin"; }
-    );
-  '';
+
+  configFormat = pkgs.formats.libconfig {};
+  configFile = configFormat.generate "sslh.conf" cfg.settings;
 in
+
 {
   imports = [
     (mkRenamedOptionModule [ "services" "sslh" "listenAddress" ] [ "services" "sslh" "listenAddresses" ])
+    (mkRenamedOptionModule [ "services" "sslh" "timeout" ] [ "services" "sslh" "settings" "timeout" ])
+    (mkRenamedOptionModule [ "services" "sslh" "transparent" ] [ "services" "sslh" "settings" "transparent" ])
+    (mkRemovedOptionModule [ "services" "sslh" "appendConfig" ] "Use services.sslh.settings instead")
+    (mkChangedOptionModule [ "services" "sslh" "verbose" ] [ "services" "sslh" "settings" "verbose-connections" ]
+      (config: if config.services.sslh.verbose then 1 else 0))
   ];
 
-  options = {
-    services.sslh = {
-      enable = mkEnableOption (lib.mdDoc "sslh");
+  meta.buildDocsInSandbox = false;
 
-      verbose = mkOption {
-        type = types.bool;
-        default = false;
-        description = lib.mdDoc "Verbose logs.";
-      };
+  options.services.sslh = {
+    enable = mkEnableOption (lib.mdDoc "sslh, protocol demultiplexer");
 
-      timeout = mkOption {
-        type = types.int;
-        default = 2;
-        description = lib.mdDoc "Timeout in seconds.";
-      };
+    method = mkOption {
+      type = types.enum [ "fork" "select" "ev" ];
+      default = "fork";
+      description = lib.mdDoc ''
+        The method to use for handling connections:
 
-      transparent = mkOption {
-        type = types.bool;
-        default = false;
-        description = lib.mdDoc "Will the services behind sslh (Apache, sshd and so on) see the external IP and ports as if the external world connected directly to them";
-      };
+          - `fork` forks a new process for each incoming connection. It is
+          well-tested and very reliable, but incurs the overhead of many
+          processes.
 
-      listenAddresses = mkOption {
-        type = types.coercedTo types.str singleton (types.listOf types.str);
-        default = [ "0.0.0.0" "[::]" ];
-        description = lib.mdDoc "Listening addresses or hostnames.";
-      };
+          - `select` uses only one thread, which monitors all connections at once.
+          It has lower overhead per connection, but if it stops, you'll lose all
+          connections.
 
-      port = mkOption {
-        type = types.port;
-        default = 443;
-        description = lib.mdDoc "Listening port.";
-      };
+          - `ev` is implemented using libev, it's similar to `select` but
+            scales better to a large number of connections.
+      '';
+    };
+
+    listenAddresses = mkOption {
+      type = with types; coercedTo str singleton (listOf str);
+      default = [ "0.0.0.0" "[::]" ];
+      description = lib.mdDoc "Listening addresses or hostnames.";
+    };
+
+    port = mkOption {
+      type = types.port;
+      default = 443;
+      description = lib.mdDoc "Listening port.";
+    };
+
+    settings = mkOption {
+      type = types.submodule {
+        freeformType = configFormat.type;
+
+        options.timeout = mkOption {
+          type = types.ints.unsigned;
+          default = 2;
+          description = lib.mdDoc "Timeout in seconds.";
+        };
+
+        options.transparent = mkOption {
+          type = types.bool;
+          default = false;
+          description = lib.mdDoc ''
+            Whether the services behind sslh (Apache, sshd and so on) will see the
+            external IP and ports as if the external world connected directly to
+            them.
+          '';
+        };
+
+        options.verbose-connections = mkOption {
+          type = types.ints.between 0 4;
+          default = 0;
+          description = lib.mdDoc ''
+            Where to log connections information. Possible values are:
+
+             0. don't log anything
+             1. write log to stdout
+             2. write log to syslog
+             3. write log to both stdout and syslog
+             4. write to a log file ({option}`sslh.settings.logfile`)
+          '';
+        };
+
+        options.numeric = mkOption {
+          type = types.bool;
+          default = true;
+          description = lib.mdDoc ''
+            Whether to disable reverse DNS lookups, thus keeping IP
+            address literals in the log.
+          '';
+        };
+
+        options.protocols = mkOption {
+          type = types.listOf configFormat.type;
+          default = [
+            { name = "ssh";     host = "localhost"; port =  "22"; service= "ssh"; }
+            { name = "openvpn"; host = "localhost"; port = "1194"; }
+            { name = "xmpp";    host = "localhost"; port = "5222"; }
+            { name = "http";    host = "localhost"; port =   "80"; }
+            { name = "tls";     host = "localhost"; port =  "443"; }
+            { name = "anyprot"; host = "localhost"; port =  "443"; }
+          ];
+          description = lib.mdDoc ''
+            List of protocols sslh will probe for and redirect.
+            Each protocol entry consists of:
+
+              - `name`: name of the probe.
+
+              - `service`: libwrap service name (see {manpage}`hosts_access(5)`),
 
-      appendConfig = mkOption {
-        type = types.str;
-        default = defaultAppendConfig;
-        description = lib.mdDoc "Verbatim configuration file.";
+              - `host`, `port`: where to connect when this probe succeeds,
+
+              - `log_level`: to log incoming connections,
+
+              - `transparent`: proxy this protocol transparently,
+
+              - etc.
+
+            See the documentation for all options, including probe-specific ones.
+          '';
+        };
       };
+      description = lib.mdDoc "sslh configuration. See {manpage}`sslh(8)` for available settings.";
     };
   };
 
@@ -96,20 +146,29 @@ in
           PermissionsStartOnly = true;
           Restart              = "always";
           RestartSec           = "1s";
-          ExecStart            = "${pkgs.sslh}/bin/sslh -F${configFile}";
+          ExecStart            = "${pkgs.sslh}/bin/sslh-${cfg.method} -F${configFile}";
           KillMode             = "process";
-          AmbientCapabilities  = "CAP_NET_BIND_SERVICE CAP_NET_ADMIN CAP_SETGID CAP_SETUID";
+          AmbientCapabilities  = ["CAP_NET_BIND_SERVICE" "CAP_NET_ADMIN" "CAP_SETGID" "CAP_SETUID"];
           PrivateTmp           = true;
           PrivateDevices       = true;
           ProtectSystem        = "full";
           ProtectHome          = true;
         };
       };
+
+      services.sslh.settings = {
+        # Settings defined here are not supposed to be changed: doing so will
+        # break the module, as such you need `lib.mkForce` to override them.
+        foreground = true;
+        inetd = false;
+        listen = map (addr: { host = addr; port = toString cfg.port; }) cfg.listenAddresses;
+      };
+
     })
 
     # code from https://github.com/yrutschle/sslh#transparent-proxy-support
     # the only difference is using iptables mark 0x2 instead of 0x1 to avoid conflicts with nixos/nat module
-    (mkIf (cfg.enable && cfg.transparent) {
+    (mkIf (cfg.enable && cfg.settings.transparent) {
       # Set route_localnet = 1 on all interfaces so that ssl can use "localhost" as destination
       boot.kernel.sysctl."net.ipv4.conf.default.route_localnet" = 1;
       boot.kernel.sysctl."net.ipv4.conf.all.route_localnet"     = 1;
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/networking/unifi.nix b/nixos/modules/services/networking/unifi.nix
index 37a739f41d485..6b68371098065 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/services/networking/unifi.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/networking/unifi.nix
@@ -6,9 +6,9 @@ let
   cmd = ''
     @${cfg.jrePackage}/bin/java java \
         ${optionalString (lib.versionAtLeast (lib.getVersion cfg.jrePackage) "16")
-        "--add-opens java.base/java.lang=ALL-UNNAMED --add-opens=java.base/java.time=ALL-UNNAMED "
+        ("--add-opens java.base/java.lang=ALL-UNNAMED --add-opens=java.base/java.time=ALL-UNNAMED "
         + "--add-opens java.base/sun.security.util=ALL-UNNAMED --add-opens java.base/java.io=ALL-UNNAMED "
-        + "--add-opens java.rmi/sun.rmi.transport=ALL-UNNAMED"} \
+        + "--add-opens java.rmi/sun.rmi.transport=ALL-UNNAMED")} \
         ${optionalString (cfg.initialJavaHeapSize != null) "-Xms${(toString cfg.initialJavaHeapSize)}m"} \
         ${optionalString (cfg.maximumJavaHeapSize != null) "-Xmx${(toString cfg.maximumJavaHeapSize)}m"} \
         -jar ${stateDir}/lib/ace.jar
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/security/privacyidea.nix b/nixos/modules/services/security/privacyidea.nix
deleted file mode 100644
index 664335cb58e89..0000000000000
--- a/nixos/modules/services/security/privacyidea.nix
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,458 +0,0 @@
-{ config, lib, options, pkgs, ... }:
-
-with lib;
-
-let
-  cfg = config.services.privacyidea;
-  opt = options.services.privacyidea;
-
-  uwsgi = pkgs.uwsgi.override { plugins = [ "python3" ]; python3 = pkgs.python310; };
-  python = uwsgi.python3;
-  penv = python.withPackages (const [ pkgs.privacyidea ]);
-  logCfg = pkgs.writeText "privacyidea-log.cfg" ''
-    [formatters]
-    keys=detail
-
-    [handlers]
-    keys=stream
-
-    [formatter_detail]
-    class=privacyidea.lib.log.SecureFormatter
-    format=[%(asctime)s][%(process)d][%(thread)d][%(levelname)s][%(name)s:%(lineno)d] %(message)s
-
-    [handler_stream]
-    class=StreamHandler
-    level=NOTSET
-    formatter=detail
-    args=(sys.stdout,)
-
-    [loggers]
-    keys=root,privacyidea
-
-    [logger_privacyidea]
-    handlers=stream
-    qualname=privacyidea
-    level=INFO
-
-    [logger_root]
-    handlers=stream
-    level=ERROR
-  '';
-
-  piCfgFile = pkgs.writeText "privacyidea.cfg" ''
-    SUPERUSER_REALM = [ '${concatStringsSep "', '" cfg.superuserRealm}' ]
-    SQLALCHEMY_DATABASE_URI = 'postgresql+psycopg2:///privacyidea'
-    SECRET_KEY = '${cfg.secretKey}'
-    PI_PEPPER = '${cfg.pepper}'
-    PI_ENCFILE = '${cfg.encFile}'
-    PI_AUDIT_KEY_PRIVATE = '${cfg.auditKeyPrivate}'
-    PI_AUDIT_KEY_PUBLIC = '${cfg.auditKeyPublic}'
-    PI_LOGCONFIG = '${logCfg}'
-    ${cfg.extraConfig}
-  '';
-
-  renderValue = x:
-    if isList x then concatMapStringsSep "," (x: ''"${x}"'') x
-    else if isString x && hasInfix "," x then ''"${x}"''
-    else x;
-
-  ldapProxyConfig = pkgs.writeText "ldap-proxy.ini"
-    (generators.toINI {}
-      (flip mapAttrs cfg.ldap-proxy.settings
-        (const (mapAttrs (const renderValue)))));
-
-  privacyidea-token-janitor = pkgs.writeShellScriptBin "privacyidea-token-janitor" ''
-    exec -a privacyidea-token-janitor \
-      /run/wrappers/bin/sudo -u ${cfg.user} \
-      env PRIVACYIDEA_CONFIGFILE=${cfg.stateDir}/privacyidea.cfg \
-      ${penv}/bin/privacyidea-token-janitor $@
-  '';
-in
-
-{
-  options = {
-    services.privacyidea = {
-      enable = mkEnableOption (lib.mdDoc "PrivacyIDEA");
-
-      environmentFile = mkOption {
-        type = types.nullOr types.path;
-        default = null;
-        example = "/root/privacyidea.env";
-        description = lib.mdDoc ''
-          File to load as environment file. Environment variables
-          from this file will be interpolated into the config file
-          using `envsubst` which is helpful for specifying
-          secrets:
-          ```
-          { services.privacyidea.secretKey = "$SECRET"; }
-          ```
-
-          The environment-file can now specify the actual secret key:
-          ```
-          SECRET=veryverytopsecret
-          ```
-        '';
-      };
-
-      stateDir = mkOption {
-        type = types.str;
-        default = "/var/lib/privacyidea";
-        description = lib.mdDoc ''
-          Directory where all PrivacyIDEA files will be placed by default.
-        '';
-      };
-
-      superuserRealm = mkOption {
-        type = types.listOf types.str;
-        default = [ "super" "administrators" ];
-        description = lib.mdDoc ''
-          The realm where users are allowed to login as administrators.
-        '';
-      };
-
-      secretKey = mkOption {
-        type = types.str;
-        example = "t0p s3cr3t";
-        description = lib.mdDoc ''
-          This is used to encrypt the auth_token.
-        '';
-      };
-
-      pepper = mkOption {
-        type = types.str;
-        example = "Never know...";
-        description = lib.mdDoc ''
-          This is used to encrypt the admin passwords.
-        '';
-      };
-
-      encFile = mkOption {
-        type = types.str;
-        default = "${cfg.stateDir}/enckey";
-        defaultText = literalExpression ''"''${config.${opt.stateDir}}/enckey"'';
-        description = lib.mdDoc ''
-          This is used to encrypt the token data and token passwords
-        '';
-      };
-
-      auditKeyPrivate = mkOption {
-        type = types.str;
-        default = "${cfg.stateDir}/private.pem";
-        defaultText = literalExpression ''"''${config.${opt.stateDir}}/private.pem"'';
-        description = lib.mdDoc ''
-          Private Key for signing the audit log.
-        '';
-      };
-
-      auditKeyPublic = mkOption {
-        type = types.str;
-        default = "${cfg.stateDir}/public.pem";
-        defaultText = literalExpression ''"''${config.${opt.stateDir}}/public.pem"'';
-        description = lib.mdDoc ''
-          Public key for checking signatures of the audit log.
-        '';
-      };
-
-      adminPasswordFile = mkOption {
-        type = types.path;
-        description = lib.mdDoc "File containing password for the admin user";
-      };
-
-      adminEmail = mkOption {
-        type = types.str;
-        example = "admin@example.com";
-        description = lib.mdDoc "Mail address for the admin user";
-      };
-
-      extraConfig = mkOption {
-        type = types.lines;
-        default = "";
-        description = lib.mdDoc ''
-          Extra configuration options for pi.cfg.
-        '';
-      };
-
-      user = mkOption {
-        type = types.str;
-        default = "privacyidea";
-        description = lib.mdDoc "User account under which PrivacyIDEA runs.";
-      };
-
-      group = mkOption {
-        type = types.str;
-        default = "privacyidea";
-        description = lib.mdDoc "Group account under which PrivacyIDEA runs.";
-      };
-
-      tokenjanitor = {
-        enable = mkEnableOption (lib.mdDoc "automatic runs of the token janitor");
-        interval = mkOption {
-          default = "quarterly";
-          type = types.str;
-          description = lib.mdDoc ''
-            Interval in which the cleanup program is supposed to run.
-            See {manpage}`systemd.time(7)` for further information.
-          '';
-        };
-        action = mkOption {
-          type = types.enum [ "delete" "mark" "disable" "unassign" ];
-          description = lib.mdDoc ''
-            Which action to take for matching tokens.
-          '';
-        };
-        unassigned = mkOption {
-          default = false;
-          type = types.bool;
-          description = lib.mdDoc ''
-            Whether to search for **unassigned** tokens
-            and apply [](#opt-services.privacyidea.tokenjanitor.action)
-            onto them.
-          '';
-        };
-        orphaned = mkOption {
-          default = true;
-          type = types.bool;
-          description = lib.mdDoc ''
-            Whether to search for **orphaned** tokens
-            and apply [](#opt-services.privacyidea.tokenjanitor.action)
-            onto them.
-          '';
-        };
-      };
-
-      ldap-proxy = {
-        enable = mkEnableOption (lib.mdDoc "PrivacyIDEA LDAP Proxy");
-
-        configFile = mkOption {
-          type = types.nullOr types.path;
-          default = null;
-          description = lib.mdDoc ''
-            Path to PrivacyIDEA LDAP Proxy configuration (proxy.ini).
-          '';
-        };
-
-        user = mkOption {
-          type = types.str;
-          default = "pi-ldap-proxy";
-          description = lib.mdDoc "User account under which PrivacyIDEA LDAP proxy runs.";
-        };
-
-        group = mkOption {
-          type = types.str;
-          default = "pi-ldap-proxy";
-          description = lib.mdDoc "Group account under which PrivacyIDEA LDAP proxy runs.";
-        };
-
-        settings = mkOption {
-          type = with types; attrsOf (attrsOf (oneOf [ str bool int (listOf str) ]));
-          default = {};
-          description = lib.mdDoc ''
-            Attribute-set containing the settings for `privacyidea-ldap-proxy`.
-            It's possible to pass secrets using env-vars as substitutes and
-            use the option [](#opt-services.privacyidea.ldap-proxy.environmentFile)
-            to inject them via `envsubst`.
-          '';
-        };
-
-        environmentFile = mkOption {
-          default = null;
-          type = types.nullOr types.str;
-          description = lib.mdDoc ''
-            Environment file containing secrets to be substituted into
-            [](#opt-services.privacyidea.ldap-proxy.settings).
-          '';
-        };
-      };
-    };
-  };
-
-  config = mkMerge [
-
-    (mkIf cfg.enable {
-
-      assertions = [
-        {
-          assertion = cfg.tokenjanitor.enable -> (cfg.tokenjanitor.orphaned || cfg.tokenjanitor.unassigned);
-          message = ''
-            privacyidea-token-janitor has no effect if neither orphaned nor unassigned tokens
-            are to be searched.
-          '';
-        }
-      ];
-
-      environment.systemPackages = [ pkgs.privacyidea (hiPrio privacyidea-token-janitor) ];
-
-      services.postgresql.enable = mkDefault true;
-
-      systemd.services.privacyidea-tokenjanitor = mkIf cfg.tokenjanitor.enable {
-        environment.PRIVACYIDEA_CONFIGFILE = "${cfg.stateDir}/privacyidea.cfg";
-        path = [ penv ];
-        serviceConfig = {
-          CapabilityBoundingSet = [ "" ];
-          ExecStart = "${pkgs.writeShellScript "pi-token-janitor" ''
-            ${optionalString cfg.tokenjanitor.orphaned ''
-              echo >&2 "Removing orphaned tokens..."
-              privacyidea-token-janitor find \
-                --orphaned true \
-                --action ${cfg.tokenjanitor.action}
-            ''}
-            ${optionalString cfg.tokenjanitor.unassigned ''
-              echo >&2 "Removing unassigned tokens..."
-              privacyidea-token-janitor find \
-                --assigned false \
-                --action ${cfg.tokenjanitor.action}
-            ''}
-          ''}";
-          Group = cfg.group;
-          LockPersonality = true;
-          MemoryDenyWriteExecute = true;
-          ProtectHome = true;
-          ProtectHostname = true;
-          ProtectKernelLogs = true;
-          ProtectKernelModules = true;
-          ProtectKernelTunables = true;
-          ProtectSystem = "strict";
-          ReadWritePaths = cfg.stateDir;
-          Type = "oneshot";
-          User = cfg.user;
-          WorkingDirectory = cfg.stateDir;
-        };
-      };
-      systemd.timers.privacyidea-tokenjanitor = mkIf cfg.tokenjanitor.enable {
-        wantedBy = [ "timers.target" ];
-        timerConfig.OnCalendar = cfg.tokenjanitor.interval;
-        timerConfig.Persistent = true;
-      };
-
-      systemd.services.privacyidea = let
-        piuwsgi = pkgs.writeText "uwsgi.json" (builtins.toJSON {
-          uwsgi = {
-            buffer-size = 8192;
-            plugins = [ "python3" ];
-            pythonpath = "${penv}/${uwsgi.python3.sitePackages}";
-            socket = "/run/privacyidea/socket";
-            uid = cfg.user;
-            gid = cfg.group;
-            chmod-socket = 770;
-            chown-socket = "${cfg.user}:nginx";
-            chdir = cfg.stateDir;
-            wsgi-file = "${penv}/etc/privacyidea/privacyideaapp.wsgi";
-            processes = 4;
-            harakiri = 60;
-            reload-mercy = 8;
-            stats = "/run/privacyidea/stats.socket";
-            max-requests = 2000;
-            limit-as = 1024;
-            reload-on-as = 512;
-            reload-on-rss = 256;
-            no-orphans = true;
-            vacuum = true;
-          };
-        });
-      in {
-        wantedBy = [ "multi-user.target" ];
-        after = [ "postgresql.service" ];
-        path = with pkgs; [ openssl ];
-        environment.PRIVACYIDEA_CONFIGFILE = "${cfg.stateDir}/privacyidea.cfg";
-        preStart = let
-          pi-manage = "${config.security.sudo.package}/bin/sudo -u privacyidea -HE ${penv}/bin/pi-manage";
-          pgsu = config.services.postgresql.superUser;
-          psql = config.services.postgresql.package;
-        in ''
-          mkdir -p ${cfg.stateDir} /run/privacyidea
-          chown ${cfg.user}:${cfg.group} -R ${cfg.stateDir} /run/privacyidea
-          umask 077
-          ${lib.getBin pkgs.envsubst}/bin/envsubst -o ${cfg.stateDir}/privacyidea.cfg \
-                                                   -i "${piCfgFile}"
-          chown ${cfg.user}:${cfg.group} ${cfg.stateDir}/privacyidea.cfg
-          if ! test -e "${cfg.stateDir}/db-created"; then
-            ${config.security.sudo.package}/bin/sudo -u ${pgsu} ${psql}/bin/createuser --no-superuser --no-createdb --no-createrole ${cfg.user}
-            ${config.security.sudo.package}/bin/sudo -u ${pgsu} ${psql}/bin/createdb --owner ${cfg.user} privacyidea
-            ${pi-manage} create_enckey
-            ${pi-manage} create_audit_keys
-            ${pi-manage} createdb
-            ${pi-manage} admin add admin -e ${cfg.adminEmail} -p "$(cat ${cfg.adminPasswordFile})"
-            ${pi-manage} db stamp head -d ${penv}/lib/privacyidea/migrations
-            touch "${cfg.stateDir}/db-created"
-            chmod g+r "${cfg.stateDir}/enckey" "${cfg.stateDir}/private.pem"
-          fi
-          ${pi-manage} db upgrade -d ${penv}/lib/privacyidea/migrations
-        '';
-        serviceConfig = {
-          Type = "notify";
-          ExecStart = "${uwsgi}/bin/uwsgi --json ${piuwsgi}";
-          ExecReload = "${pkgs.coreutils}/bin/kill -HUP $MAINPID";
-          EnvironmentFile = lib.mkIf (cfg.environmentFile != null) cfg.environmentFile;
-          ExecStop = "${pkgs.coreutils}/bin/kill -INT $MAINPID";
-          NotifyAccess = "main";
-          KillSignal = "SIGQUIT";
-        };
-      };
-
-      users.users.privacyidea = mkIf (cfg.user == "privacyidea") {
-        group = cfg.group;
-        isSystemUser = true;
-      };
-
-      users.groups.privacyidea = mkIf (cfg.group == "privacyidea") {};
-    })
-
-    (mkIf cfg.ldap-proxy.enable {
-
-      assertions = [
-        { assertion = let
-            xor = a: b: a && !b || !a && b;
-          in xor (cfg.ldap-proxy.settings == {}) (cfg.ldap-proxy.configFile == null);
-          message = "configFile & settings are mutually exclusive for services.privacyidea.ldap-proxy!";
-        }
-      ];
-
-      warnings = mkIf (cfg.ldap-proxy.configFile != null) [
-        "Using services.privacyidea.ldap-proxy.configFile is deprecated! Use the RFC42-style settings option instead!"
-      ];
-
-      systemd.services.privacyidea-ldap-proxy = let
-        ldap-proxy-env = pkgs.python3.withPackages (ps: [ ps.privacyidea-ldap-proxy ]);
-      in {
-        description = "privacyIDEA LDAP proxy";
-        wantedBy = [ "multi-user.target" ];
-        serviceConfig = {
-          User = cfg.ldap-proxy.user;
-          Group = cfg.ldap-proxy.group;
-          StateDirectory = "privacyidea-ldap-proxy";
-          EnvironmentFile = mkIf (cfg.ldap-proxy.environmentFile != null)
-            [ cfg.ldap-proxy.environmentFile ];
-          ExecStartPre =
-            "${pkgs.writeShellScript "substitute-secrets-ldap-proxy" ''
-              umask 0077
-              ${pkgs.envsubst}/bin/envsubst \
-                -i ${ldapProxyConfig} \
-                -o $STATE_DIRECTORY/ldap-proxy.ini
-            ''}";
-          ExecStart = let
-            configPath = if cfg.ldap-proxy.settings != {}
-              then "%S/privacyidea-ldap-proxy/ldap-proxy.ini"
-              else cfg.ldap-proxy.configFile;
-          in ''
-            ${ldap-proxy-env}/bin/twistd \
-              --nodaemon \
-              --pidfile= \
-              -u ${cfg.ldap-proxy.user} \
-              -g ${cfg.ldap-proxy.group} \
-              ldap-proxy \
-              -c ${configPath}
-          '';
-          Restart = "always";
-        };
-      };
-
-      users.users.pi-ldap-proxy = mkIf (cfg.ldap-proxy.user == "pi-ldap-proxy") {
-        group = cfg.ldap-proxy.group;
-        isSystemUser = true;
-      };
-
-      users.groups.pi-ldap-proxy = mkIf (cfg.ldap-proxy.group == "pi-ldap-proxy") {};
-    })
-  ];
-
-}
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/web-apps/akkoma.nix b/nixos/modules/services/web-apps/akkoma.nix
index eaee70c712bb8..5f9bbbd663744 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/services/web-apps/akkoma.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/web-apps/akkoma.nix
@@ -86,7 +86,7 @@ let
   # Erlang/Elixir uses a somewhat special format for IP addresses
   erlAddr = addr: fileContents
     (pkgs.runCommand addr {
-      nativeBuildInputs = with pkgs; [ elixir ];
+      nativeBuildInputs = [ cfg.package.elixirPackage ];
       code = ''
         case :inet.parse_address('${addr}') do
           {:ok, addr} -> IO.inspect addr
@@ -96,7 +96,7 @@ let
       passAsFile = [ "code" ];
     } ''elixir "$codePath" >"$out"'');
 
-  format = pkgs.formats.elixirConf { };
+  format = pkgs.formats.elixirConf { elixir = cfg.package.elixirPackage; };
   configFile = format.generate "config.exs"
     (replaceSec
       (attrsets.updateManyAttrsByPath [{
@@ -146,7 +146,7 @@ let
 
   initSecretsScript = writeShell {
     name = "akkoma-init-secrets";
-    runtimeInputs = with pkgs; [ coreutils elixir ];
+    runtimeInputs = with pkgs; [ coreutils cfg.package.elixirPackage ];
     text = let
       key-base = web.secret_key_base;
       jwt-signer = ex.":joken".":default_signer";
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/web-apps/mobilizon.nix b/nixos/modules/services/web-apps/mobilizon.nix
index e9264a38f0e61..343c5cead2b15 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/services/web-apps/mobilizon.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/web-apps/mobilizon.nix
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ let
   user = "mobilizon";
   group = "mobilizon";
 
-  settingsFormat = pkgs.formats.elixirConf { elixir = pkgs.elixir_1_14; };
+  settingsFormat = pkgs.formats.elixirConf { elixir = cfg.package.elixirPackage; };
 
   configFile = settingsFormat.generate "mobilizon-config.exs" cfg.settings;
 
@@ -309,7 +309,7 @@ in
           genCookie = "IO.puts(Base.encode32(:crypto.strong_rand_bytes(32)))";
 
           evalElixir = str: ''
-            ${pkgs.elixir_1_14}/bin/elixir --eval '${str}'
+            ${cfg.package.elixirPackage}/bin/elixir --eval '${str}'
           '';
         in
         ''
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/web-apps/peertube.nix b/nixos/modules/services/web-apps/peertube.nix
index 17e170c33deea..a22467611410b 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/services/web-apps/peertube.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/web-apps/peertube.nix
@@ -352,6 +352,7 @@ in {
         };
         storage = {
           tmp = lib.mkDefault "/var/lib/peertube/storage/tmp/";
+          tmp_persistent = lib.mkDefault "/var/lib/peertube/storage/tmp_persistent/";
           bin = lib.mkDefault "/var/lib/peertube/storage/bin/";
           avatars = lib.mkDefault "/var/lib/peertube/storage/avatars/";
           videos = lib.mkDefault "/var/lib/peertube/storage/videos/";
@@ -521,6 +522,21 @@ in {
           '';
         };
 
+        locations."~ ^/api/v1/runners/jobs/[^/]+/(update|success)$" = {
+          tryFiles = "/dev/null @api";
+          root = cfg.settings.storage.tmp;
+          priority = 1135;
+
+          extraConfig = ''
+            client_max_body_size                        12G;
+            add_header X-File-Maximum-Size              8G always;
+          '' + lib.optionalString cfg.enableWebHttps ''
+            add_header Strict-Transport-Security        'max-age=63072000; includeSubDomains';
+          '' + lib.optionalString config.services.nginx.virtualHosts.${cfg.localDomain}.http3 ''
+            add_header Alt-Svc                          'h3=":443"; ma=86400';
+          '';
+        };
+
         locations."~ ^/api/v1/(videos|video-playlists|video-channels|users/me)" = {
           tryFiles = "/dev/null @api";
           priority = 1140;
@@ -607,72 +623,33 @@ in {
           '';
         };
 
-        locations."^~ /lazy-static/avatars/" = {
-          tryFiles = "$uri @api";
-          root = cfg.settings.storage.avatars;
-          priority = 1330;
-          extraConfig = ''
-            if ($request_method = 'OPTIONS') {
-              ${nginxCommonHeaders}
-              add_header Access-Control-Max-Age         1728000;
-              add_header Cache-Control                  'no-cache';
-              add_header Content-Type                   'text/plain charset=UTF-8';
-              add_header Content-Length                 0;
-              return                                    204;
-            }
-
-            ${nginxCommonHeaders}
-            add_header Cache-Control                    'public, max-age=7200';
-
-            rewrite ^/lazy-static/avatars/(.*)$         /$1 break;
-          '';
-        };
-
-        locations."^~ /lazy-static/banners/" = {
-          tryFiles = "$uri @api";
-          root = cfg.settings.storage.avatars;
-          priority = 1340;
+        locations."^~ /download/" = {
+          proxyPass = "http://127.0.0.1:${toString cfg.listenHttp}";
+          priority = 1410;
           extraConfig = ''
-            if ($request_method = 'OPTIONS') {
-              ${nginxCommonHeaders}
-              add_header Access-Control-Max-Age         1728000;
-              add_header Cache-Control                  'no-cache';
-              add_header Content-Type                   'text/plain charset=UTF-8';
-              add_header Content-Length                 0;
-              return                                    204;
-            }
-
-            ${nginxCommonHeaders}
-            add_header Cache-Control                    'public, max-age=7200';
+            proxy_set_header X-Forwarded-For            $proxy_add_x_forwarded_for;
+            proxy_set_header Host                       $host;
+            proxy_set_header X-Real-IP                  $remote_addr;
 
-            rewrite ^/lazy-static/banners/(.*)$         /$1 break;
+            proxy_limit_rate                            5M;
           '';
         };
 
-        locations."^~ /lazy-static/previews/" = {
-          tryFiles = "$uri @api";
-          root = cfg.settings.storage.previews;
-          priority = 1350;
+        locations."^~ /static/streaming-playlists/private/" = {
+          proxyPass = "http://127.0.0.1:${toString cfg.listenHttp}";
+          priority = 1420;
           extraConfig = ''
-            if ($request_method = 'OPTIONS') {
-              ${nginxCommonHeaders}
-              add_header Access-Control-Max-Age         1728000;
-              add_header Cache-Control                  'no-cache';
-              add_header Content-Type                   'text/plain charset=UTF-8';
-              add_header Content-Length                 0;
-              return                                    204;
-            }
-
-            ${nginxCommonHeaders}
-            add_header Cache-Control                    'public, max-age=7200';
+            proxy_set_header X-Forwarded-For            $proxy_add_x_forwarded_for;
+            proxy_set_header Host                       $host;
+            proxy_set_header X-Real-IP                  $remote_addr;
 
-            rewrite ^/lazy-static/previews/(.*)$        /$1 break;
+            proxy_limit_rate                            5M;
           '';
         };
 
-        locations."^~ /static/streaming-playlists/private/" = {
+        locations."^~ /static/web-videos/private/" = {
           proxyPass = "http://127.0.0.1:${toString cfg.listenHttp}";
-          priority = 1410;
+          priority = 1430;
           extraConfig = ''
             proxy_set_header X-Forwarded-For            $proxy_add_x_forwarded_for;
             proxy_set_header Host                       $host;
@@ -684,7 +661,7 @@ in {
 
         locations."^~ /static/webseed/private/" = {
           proxyPass = "http://127.0.0.1:${toString cfg.listenHttp}";
-          priority = 1420;
+          priority = 1440;
           extraConfig = ''
             proxy_set_header X-Forwarded-For            $proxy_add_x_forwarded_for;
             proxy_set_header Host                       $host;
@@ -694,31 +671,45 @@ in {
           '';
         };
 
-        locations."^~ /static/thumbnails/" = {
+        locations."^~ /static/redundancy/" = {
           tryFiles = "$uri @api";
-          root = cfg.settings.storage.thumbnails;
-          priority = 1430;
+          root = cfg.settings.storage.redundancy;
+          priority = 1450;
           extraConfig = ''
+            set $peertube_limit_rate                    800k;
+
+            if ($request_uri ~ -fragmented.mp4$) {
+              set $peertube_limit_rate                  5M;
+            }
+
             if ($request_method = 'OPTIONS') {
               ${nginxCommonHeaders}
               add_header Access-Control-Max-Age         1728000;
-              add_header Cache-Control                  'no-cache';
               add_header Content-Type                   'text/plain charset=UTF-8';
               add_header Content-Length                 0;
               return                                    204;
             }
+            if ($request_method = 'GET') {
+              ${nginxCommonHeaders}
+
+              access_log                                off;
+            }
 
-            ${nginxCommonHeaders}
-            add_header Cache-Control                    'public, max-age=7200';
+            aio                                         threads;
+            sendfile                                    on;
+            sendfile_max_chunk                          1M;
+
+            limit_rate                                  $peertube_limit_rate;
+            limit_rate_after                            5M;
 
-            rewrite ^/static/thumbnails/(.*)$           /$1 break;
+            rewrite ^/static/redundancy/(.*)$           /$1 break;
           '';
         };
 
-        locations."^~ /static/redundancy/" = {
+        locations."^~ /static/streaming-playlists/" = {
           tryFiles = "$uri @api";
-          root = cfg.settings.storage.redundancy;
-          priority = 1440;
+          root = cfg.settings.storage.streaming_playlists;
+          priority = 1460;
           extraConfig = ''
             set $peertube_limit_rate                    800k;
 
@@ -746,14 +737,14 @@ in {
             limit_rate                                  $peertube_limit_rate;
             limit_rate_after                            5M;
 
-            rewrite ^/static/redundancy/(.*)$           /$1 break;
+            rewrite ^/static/streaming-playlists/(.*)$  /$1 break;
           '';
         };
 
-        locations."^~ /static/streaming-playlists/" = {
+        locations."^~ /static/web-videos/" = {
           tryFiles = "$uri @api";
           root = cfg.settings.storage.streaming_playlists;
-          priority = 1450;
+          priority = 1470;
           extraConfig = ''
             set $peertube_limit_rate                    800k;
 
@@ -788,7 +779,7 @@ in {
         locations."^~ /static/webseed/" = {
           tryFiles = "$uri @api";
           root = cfg.settings.storage.videos;
-          priority = 1460;
+          priority = 1480;
           extraConfig = ''
             set $peertube_limit_rate                    800k;
 
diff --git a/nixos/modules/services/x11/extra-layouts.nix b/nixos/modules/services/x11/extra-layouts.nix
index 3941f50b7550e..ab7e39739eeb3 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/services/x11/extra-layouts.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/services/x11/extra-layouts.nix
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 with lib;
 
 let
-  layouts = config.services.xserver.extraLayouts;
+  layouts = config.services.xserver.xkb.extraLayouts;
 
   layoutOpts = {
     options = {
@@ -15,10 +15,10 @@ let
       languages = mkOption {
         type = types.listOf types.str;
         description =
-        lib.mdDoc ''
-          A list of languages provided by the layout.
-          (Use ISO 639-2 codes, for example: "eng" for english)
-        '';
+          lib.mdDoc ''
+            A list of languages provided by the layout.
+            (Use ISO 639-2 codes, for example: "eng" for english)
+          '';
       };
 
       compatFile = mkOption {
@@ -80,29 +80,37 @@ let
   };
 
   xkb_patched = pkgs.xorg.xkeyboardconfig_custom {
-    layouts = config.services.xserver.extraLayouts;
+    layouts = config.services.xserver.xkb.extraLayouts;
   };
 
 in
 
 {
 
+  imports = [
+    (lib.mkRenamedOptionModuleWith {
+      sinceRelease = 2311;
+      from = [ "services" "xserver" "extraLayouts" ];
+      to = [ "services" "xserver" "xkb" "extraLayouts" ];
+    })
+  ];
+
   ###### interface
 
-  options.services.xserver = {
+  options.services.xserver.xkb = {
     extraLayouts = mkOption {
       type = types.attrsOf (types.submodule layoutOpts);
-      default = {};
+      default = { };
       example = literalExpression
-      ''
-        {
-          mine = {
-            description = "My custom xkb layout.";
-            languages = [ "eng" ];
-            symbolsFile = /path/to/my/layout;
-          };
-        }
-      '';
+        ''
+          {
+            mine = {
+              description = "My custom xkb layout.";
+              languages = [ "eng" ];
+              symbolsFile = /path/to/my/layout;
+            };
+          }
+        '';
       description = lib.mdDoc ''
         Extra custom layouts that will be included in the xkb configuration.
         Information on how to create a new layout can be found here:
diff --git a/nixos/modules/system/activation/activatable-system.nix b/nixos/modules/system/activation/activatable-system.nix
index 7f6154794bd8d..3d941596747bf 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/system/activation/activatable-system.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/system/activation/activatable-system.nix
@@ -1,52 +1,16 @@
-{ config, lib, pkgs, ... }:
+{ options, config, lib, pkgs, ... }:
 
 let
   inherit (lib)
     mkOption
-    optionalString
     types
     ;
 
-  perlWrapped = pkgs.perl.withPackages (p: with p; [ ConfigIniFiles FileSlurp ]);
-
   systemBuilderArgs = {
     activationScript = config.system.activationScripts.script;
     dryActivationScript = config.system.dryActivationScript;
   };
 
-  systemBuilderCommands = ''
-    echo "$activationScript" > $out/activate
-    echo "$dryActivationScript" > $out/dry-activate
-    substituteInPlace $out/activate --subst-var-by out ''${!toplevelVar}
-    substituteInPlace $out/dry-activate --subst-var-by out ''${!toplevelVar}
-    chmod u+x $out/activate $out/dry-activate
-    unset activationScript dryActivationScript
-
-    mkdir $out/bin
-    substitute ${./switch-to-configuration.pl} $out/bin/switch-to-configuration \
-      --subst-var out \
-      --subst-var-by toplevel ''${!toplevelVar} \
-      --subst-var-by coreutils "${pkgs.coreutils}" \
-      --subst-var-by distroId ${lib.escapeShellArg config.system.nixos.distroId} \
-      --subst-var-by installBootLoader ${lib.escapeShellArg config.system.build.installBootLoader} \
-      --subst-var-by localeArchive "${config.i18n.glibcLocales}/lib/locale/locale-archive" \
-      --subst-var-by perl "${perlWrapped}" \
-      --subst-var-by shell "${pkgs.bash}/bin/sh" \
-      --subst-var-by su "${pkgs.shadow.su}/bin/su" \
-      --subst-var-by systemd "${config.systemd.package}" \
-      --subst-var-by utillinux "${pkgs.util-linux}" \
-      ;
-
-    chmod +x $out/bin/switch-to-configuration
-    ${optionalString (pkgs.stdenv.hostPlatform == pkgs.stdenv.buildPlatform) ''
-      if ! output=$(${perlWrapped}/bin/perl -c $out/bin/switch-to-configuration 2>&1); then
-        echo "switch-to-configuration syntax is not valid:"
-        echo "$output"
-        exit 1
-      fi
-    ''}
-  '';
-
 in
 {
   options = {
@@ -60,6 +24,18 @@ in
         do, but for image based systems, this may not be needed or not be desirable.
       '';
     };
+    system.activatableSystemBuilderCommands = options.system.systemBuilderCommands // {
+      description = lib.mdDoc ''
+        Like `system.systemBuilderCommands`, but only for the commands that are
+        needed *both* when the system is activatable and when it isn't.
+
+        Disclaimer: This option might go away in the future. It might be
+        superseded by separating switch-to-configuration into a separate script
+        which will make this option superfluous. See
+        https://github.com/NixOS/nixpkgs/pull/263462#discussion_r1373104845 for
+        a discussion.
+      '';
+    };
     system.build.separateActivationScript = mkOption {
       type = types.package;
       description = ''
@@ -71,7 +47,18 @@ in
     };
   };
   config = {
-    system.systemBuilderCommands = lib.mkIf config.system.activatable systemBuilderCommands;
+    system.activatableSystemBuilderCommands = ''
+      echo "$activationScript" > $out/activate
+      echo "$dryActivationScript" > $out/dry-activate
+      substituteInPlace $out/activate --subst-var-by out ''${!toplevelVar}
+      substituteInPlace $out/dry-activate --subst-var-by out ''${!toplevelVar}
+      chmod u+x $out/activate $out/dry-activate
+      unset activationScript dryActivationScript
+    '';
+
+    system.systemBuilderCommands = lib.mkIf
+      config.system.activatable
+      config.system.activatableSystemBuilderCommands;
     system.systemBuilderArgs = lib.mkIf config.system.activatable
       (systemBuilderArgs // {
         toplevelVar = "out";
@@ -86,7 +73,7 @@ in
         })
         ''
           mkdir $out
-          ${systemBuilderCommands}
+          ${config.system.activatableSystemBuilderCommands}
         '';
   };
 }
diff --git a/nixos/modules/system/activation/activation-script.nix b/nixos/modules/system/activation/activation-script.nix
index 95b0c7bbd6817..bc0b7266ce959 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/system/activation/activation-script.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/system/activation/activation-script.nix
@@ -230,7 +230,6 @@ in
 
     system.activationScripts.stdio = ""; # obsolete
     system.activationScripts.var = ""; # obsolete
-    system.activationScripts.specialfs = ""; # obsolete
 
     systemd.tmpfiles.rules = [
       # Prevent the current configuration from being garbage-collected.
@@ -252,6 +251,25 @@ in
         rmdir --ignore-fail-on-non-empty /usr/bin /usr
       '';
 
+    system.activationScripts.specialfs =
+      ''
+        specialMount() {
+          local device="$1"
+          local mountPoint="$2"
+          local options="$3"
+          local fsType="$4"
+
+          if mountpoint -q "$mountPoint"; then
+            local options="remount,$options"
+          else
+            mkdir -p "$mountPoint"
+            chmod 0755 "$mountPoint"
+          fi
+          mount -t "$fsType" -o "$options" "$device" "$mountPoint"
+        }
+        source ${config.system.build.earlyMountScript}
+      '';
+
     systemd.user = {
       services.nixos-activation = {
         description = "Run user-specific NixOS activation";
diff --git a/nixos/modules/system/activation/switch-to-configuration.pl b/nixos/modules/system/activation/switch-to-configuration.pl
index b3ff3ac0abf30..e2f66a287bc4f 100755
--- a/nixos/modules/system/activation/switch-to-configuration.pl
+++ b/nixos/modules/system/activation/switch-to-configuration.pl
@@ -22,6 +22,7 @@ use JSON::PP;
 use IPC::Cmd;
 use Sys::Syslog qw(:standard :macros);
 use Cwd qw(abs_path);
+use Fcntl ':flock';
 
 ## no critic(ControlStructures::ProhibitDeepNests)
 ## no critic(ErrorHandling::RequireCarping)
@@ -91,6 +92,8 @@ if (!-f "/etc/NIXOS" && (read_file("/etc/os-release", err_mode => "quiet") // ""
 }
 
 make_path("/run/nixos", { mode => oct(755) });
+open(my $stc_lock, '>>', '/run/nixos/switch-to-configuration.lock') or die "Could not open lock - $!";
+flock($stc_lock, LOCK_EX) or die "Could not acquire lock - $!";
 openlog("nixos", "", LOG_USER);
 
 # Install or update the bootloader.
@@ -985,4 +988,5 @@ if ($res == 0) {
     syslog(LOG_ERR, "switching to system configuration $toplevel failed (status $res)");
 }
 
+close($stc_lock) or die "Could not close lock - $!";
 exit($res);
diff --git a/nixos/modules/system/activation/switchable-system.nix b/nixos/modules/system/activation/switchable-system.nix
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..00bc18e48d1fb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/nixos/modules/system/activation/switchable-system.nix
@@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
+{ config, lib, pkgs, ... }:
+
+let
+
+  perlWrapped = pkgs.perl.withPackages (p: with p; [ ConfigIniFiles FileSlurp ]);
+
+in
+
+{
+
+  options = {
+    system.switch.enable = lib.mkOption {
+      type = lib.types.bool;
+      default = true;
+      description = lib.mdDoc ''
+        Whether to include the capability to switch configurations.
+
+        Disabling this makes the system unable to be reconfigured via `nixos-rebuild`.
+
+        This is good for image based appliances where updates are handled
+        outside the image. Reducing features makes the image lighter and
+        slightly more secure.
+      '';
+    };
+  };
+
+  config = lib.mkIf config.system.switch.enable {
+    system.activatableSystemBuilderCommands = ''
+      mkdir $out/bin
+      substitute ${./switch-to-configuration.pl} $out/bin/switch-to-configuration \
+        --subst-var out \
+        --subst-var-by toplevel ''${!toplevelVar} \
+        --subst-var-by coreutils "${pkgs.coreutils}" \
+        --subst-var-by distroId ${lib.escapeShellArg config.system.nixos.distroId} \
+        --subst-var-by installBootLoader ${lib.escapeShellArg config.system.build.installBootLoader} \
+        --subst-var-by localeArchive "${config.i18n.glibcLocales}/lib/locale/locale-archive" \
+        --subst-var-by perl "${perlWrapped}" \
+        --subst-var-by shell "${pkgs.bash}/bin/sh" \
+        --subst-var-by su "${pkgs.shadow.su}/bin/su" \
+        --subst-var-by systemd "${config.systemd.package}" \
+        --subst-var-by utillinux "${pkgs.util-linux}" \
+        ;
+
+      chmod +x $out/bin/switch-to-configuration
+      ${lib.optionalString (pkgs.stdenv.hostPlatform == pkgs.stdenv.buildPlatform) ''
+        if ! output=$(${perlWrapped}/bin/perl -c $out/bin/switch-to-configuration 2>&1); then
+          echo "switch-to-configuration syntax is not valid:"
+          echo "$output"
+          exit 1
+        fi
+      ''}
+    '';
+  };
+
+}
diff --git a/nixos/modules/system/boot/initrd-network.nix b/nixos/modules/system/boot/initrd-network.nix
index 5bf38b6fa200b..88ba43caf0030 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/system/boot/initrd-network.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/system/boot/initrd-network.nix
@@ -116,11 +116,11 @@ in
 
     boot.initrd.kernelModules = [ "af_packet" ];
 
-    boot.initrd.extraUtilsCommands = ''
+    boot.initrd.extraUtilsCommands = mkIf (!config.boot.initrd.systemd.enable) ''
       copy_bin_and_libs ${pkgs.klibc}/lib/klibc/bin.static/ipconfig
     '';
 
-    boot.initrd.preLVMCommands = mkBefore (
+    boot.initrd.preLVMCommands = mkIf (!config.boot.initrd.systemd.enable) (mkBefore (
       # Search for interface definitions in command line.
       ''
         ifaces=""
@@ -138,7 +138,7 @@ in
         # Bring up all interfaces.
         for iface in ${dhcpIfShellExpr}; do
           echo "bringing up network interface $iface..."
-          ip link set "$iface" up && ifaces="$ifaces $iface"
+          ip link set dev "$iface" up && ifaces="$ifaces $iface"
         done
 
         # Acquire DHCP leases.
@@ -148,12 +148,12 @@ in
         done
       ''
 
-      + cfg.postCommands);
+      + cfg.postCommands));
 
-    boot.initrd.postMountCommands = mkIf cfg.flushBeforeStage2 ''
+    boot.initrd.postMountCommands = mkIf (cfg.flushBeforeStage2 && !config.boot.initrd.systemd.enable) ''
       for iface in $ifaces; do
-        ip address flush "$iface"
-        ip link set "$iface" down
+        ip address flush dev "$iface"
+        ip link set dev "$iface" down
       done
     '';
 
diff --git a/nixos/modules/system/boot/initrd-ssh.nix b/nixos/modules/system/boot/initrd-ssh.nix
index 60c5ff62ffff0..3df14030ab687 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/system/boot/initrd-ssh.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/system/boot/initrd-ssh.nix
@@ -164,13 +164,12 @@ in
           for instructions.
         '';
       }
-
-      {
-        assertion = config.boot.initrd.systemd.enable -> cfg.shell == null;
-        message = "systemd stage 1 does not support boot.initrd.network.ssh.shell";
-      }
     ];
 
+    warnings = lib.optional (config.boot.initrd.systemd.enable -> cfg.shell != null) ''
+      Please set 'boot.initrd.systemd.users.root.shell' instead of 'boot.initrd.network.ssh.shell'
+    '';
+
     boot.initrd.extraUtilsCommands = mkIf (!config.boot.initrd.systemd.enable) ''
       copy_bin_and_libs ${package}/bin/sshd
       cp -pv ${pkgs.glibc.out}/lib/libnss_files.so.* $out/lib
@@ -235,6 +234,8 @@ in
       users.sshd = { uid = 1; group = "sshd"; };
       groups.sshd = { gid = 1; };
 
+      users.root.shell = mkIf (config.boot.initrd.network.ssh.shell != null) config.boot.initrd.network.ssh.shell;
+
       contents."/etc/ssh/authorized_keys.d/root".text =
         concatStringsSep "\n" config.boot.initrd.network.ssh.authorizedKeys;
       contents."/etc/ssh/sshd_config".text = sshdConfig;
diff --git a/nixos/modules/system/boot/stage-2-init.sh b/nixos/modules/system/boot/stage-2-init.sh
index 5a2133f960e2b..a89e3d8176374 100755
--- a/nixos/modules/system/boot/stage-2-init.sh
+++ b/nixos/modules/system/boot/stage-2-init.sh
@@ -54,7 +54,7 @@ if [ ! -e /proc/1 ]; then
 fi
 
 
-if [ "${IN_NIXOS_SYSTEMD_STAGE1:-}" = true ]; then
+if [ "${IN_NIXOS_SYSTEMD_STAGE1:-}" = true ] || [ ! -c /dev/kmsg ] ; then
     echo "booting system configuration ${systemConfig}"
 else
     echo "booting system configuration $systemConfig" > /dev/kmsg
diff --git a/nixos/modules/system/boot/systemd/initrd.nix b/nixos/modules/system/boot/systemd/initrd.nix
index 175e757cbbb6c..be40b8e969a17 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/system/boot/systemd/initrd.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/system/boot/systemd/initrd.nix
@@ -128,10 +128,6 @@ in {
         stage 2 counterparts such as {option}`systemd.services`,
         except that `restartTriggers` and `reloadTriggers` are not
         supported.
-
-        Note: This is experimental. Some of the `boot.initrd` options
-        are not supported when this is enabled, and the options under
-        `boot.initrd.systemd` are subject to change.
       '';
     };
 
@@ -348,6 +344,27 @@ in {
   };
 
   config = mkIf (config.boot.initrd.enable && cfg.enable) {
+    assertions = map (name: {
+      assertion = lib.attrByPath name (throw "impossible") config.boot.initrd == "";
+      message = ''
+        systemd stage 1 does not support 'boot.initrd.${lib.concatStringsSep "." name}'. Please
+          convert it to analogous systemd units in 'boot.initrd.systemd'.
+
+            Definitions:
+        ${lib.concatMapStringsSep "\n" ({ file, ... }: "    - ${file}") (lib.attrByPath name (throw "impossible") options.boot.initrd).definitionsWithLocations}
+      '';
+    }) [
+      [ "preFailCommands" ]
+      [ "preDeviceCommands" ]
+      [ "preLVMCommands" ]
+      [ "postDeviceCommands" ]
+      [ "postMountCommands" ]
+      [ "extraUdevRulesCommands" ]
+      [ "extraUtilsCommands" ]
+      [ "extraUtilsCommandsTest" ]
+      [ "network" "postCommands" ]
+    ];
+
     system.build = { inherit initialRamdisk; };
 
     boot.initrd.availableKernelModules = [
diff --git a/nixos/modules/tasks/encrypted-devices.nix b/nixos/modules/tasks/encrypted-devices.nix
index ab3ccddf682d1..da9c83ba339c2 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/tasks/encrypted-devices.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/tasks/encrypted-devices.nix
@@ -110,10 +110,11 @@ in
           }) earlyEncDevs);
         forceLuksSupportInInitrd = true;
       };
-      postMountCommands =
-        concatMapStrings (dev:
+      # TODO: systemd stage 1
+      postMountCommands = lib.mkIf (!config.boot.initrd.systemd.enable)
+        (concatMapStrings (dev:
           "cryptsetup luksOpen --key-file ${dev.encrypted.keyFile} ${dev.encrypted.blkDev} ${dev.encrypted.label};\n"
-        ) lateEncDevs;
+        ) lateEncDevs);
     };
   };
 }
diff --git a/nixos/modules/tasks/filesystems/bcachefs.nix b/nixos/modules/tasks/filesystems/bcachefs.nix
index 19ef188ce7833..4eadec239e67d 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/tasks/filesystems/bcachefs.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/tasks/filesystems/bcachefs.nix
@@ -34,17 +34,43 @@ let
     }
   '';
 
-  openCommand = name: fs:
-    let
-      # we need only unlock one device manually, and cannot pass multiple at once
-      # remove this adaptation when bcachefs implements mounting by filesystem uuid
-      # also, implement automatic waiting for the constituent devices when that happens
-      # bcachefs does not support mounting devices with colons in the path, ergo we don't (see #49671)
-      firstDevice = head (splitString ":" fs.device);
-    in
-      ''
-        tryUnlock ${name} ${firstDevice}
+  # we need only unlock one device manually, and cannot pass multiple at once
+  # remove this adaptation when bcachefs implements mounting by filesystem uuid
+  # also, implement automatic waiting for the constituent devices when that happens
+  # bcachefs does not support mounting devices with colons in the path, ergo we don't (see #49671)
+  firstDevice = fs: head (splitString ":" fs.device);
+
+  openCommand = name: fs: ''
+    tryUnlock ${name} ${firstDevice fs}
+  '';
+
+  mkUnits = prefix: name: fs: let
+    mountUnit = "${utils.escapeSystemdPath (prefix + (lib.removeSuffix "/" fs.mountPoint))}.mount";
+    device = firstDevice fs;
+    deviceUnit = "${utils.escapeSystemdPath device}.device";
+  in {
+    name = "unlock-bcachefs-${utils.escapeSystemdPath fs.mountPoint}";
+    value = {
+      description = "Unlock bcachefs for ${fs.mountPoint}";
+      requiredBy = [ mountUnit ];
+      before = [ mountUnit ];
+      bindsTo = [ deviceUnit ];
+      after = [ deviceUnit ];
+      unitConfig.DefaultDependencies = false;
+      serviceConfig = {
+        Type = "oneshot";
+        ExecCondition = "${pkgs.bcachefs-tools}/bin/bcachefs unlock -c \"${device}\"";
+        Restart = "on-failure";
+        RestartMode = "direct";
+        # Ideally, this service would lock the key on stop.
+        # As is, RemainAfterExit doesn't accomplish anything.
+        RemainAfterExit = true;
+      };
+      script = ''
+        ${config.boot.initrd.systemd.package}/bin/systemd-ask-password --timeout=0 "enter passphrase for ${name}" | exec ${pkgs.bcachefs-tools}/bin/bcachefs unlock "${device}"
       '';
+    };
+  };
 
 in
 
@@ -59,6 +85,8 @@ in
 
       # use kernel package with bcachefs support until it's in mainline
       boot.kernelPackages = pkgs.linuxPackages_testing_bcachefs;
+
+      systemd.services = lib.mapAttrs' (mkUnits "") (lib.filterAttrs (n: fs: (fs.fsType == "bcachefs") && (!utils.fsNeededForBoot fs)) config.fileSystems);
     }
 
     (mkIf ((elem "bcachefs" config.boot.initrd.supportedFilesystems) || (bootFs != {})) {
@@ -74,11 +102,13 @@ in
         copy_bin_and_libs ${pkgs.bcachefs-tools}/bin/bcachefs
         copy_bin_and_libs ${mountCommand}/bin/mount.bcachefs
       '';
-      boot.initrd.extraUtilsCommandsTest = ''
+      boot.initrd.extraUtilsCommandsTest = lib.mkIf (!config.boot.initrd.systemd.enable) ''
         $out/bin/bcachefs version
       '';
 
-      boot.initrd.postDeviceCommands = commonFunctions + concatStrings (mapAttrsToList openCommand bootFs);
+      boot.initrd.postDeviceCommands = lib.mkIf (!config.boot.initrd.systemd.enable) (commonFunctions + concatStrings (mapAttrsToList openCommand bootFs));
+
+      boot.initrd.systemd.services = lib.mapAttrs' (mkUnits "/sysroot") bootFs;
     })
   ]);
 }
diff --git a/nixos/modules/tasks/filesystems/zfs.nix b/nixos/modules/tasks/filesystems/zfs.nix
index 082634ec9d010..4b6a5b6c12c14 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/tasks/filesystems/zfs.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/tasks/filesystems/zfs.nix
@@ -584,17 +584,17 @@ in
       boot.initrd = mkIf inInitrd {
         kernelModules = [ "zfs" ] ++ optional (!cfgZfs.enableUnstable) "spl";
         extraUtilsCommands =
-          ''
+          mkIf (!config.boot.initrd.systemd.enable) ''
             copy_bin_and_libs ${cfgZfs.package}/sbin/zfs
             copy_bin_and_libs ${cfgZfs.package}/sbin/zdb
             copy_bin_and_libs ${cfgZfs.package}/sbin/zpool
           '';
-        extraUtilsCommandsTest = mkIf inInitrd
-          ''
+        extraUtilsCommandsTest =
+          mkIf (!config.boot.initrd.systemd.enable) ''
             $out/bin/zfs --help >/dev/null 2>&1
             $out/bin/zpool --help >/dev/null 2>&1
           '';
-        postDeviceCommands = concatStringsSep "\n" ([''
+        postDeviceCommands = mkIf (!config.boot.initrd.systemd.enable) (concatStringsSep "\n" ([''
             ZFS_FORCE="${optionalString cfgZfs.forceImportRoot "-f"}"
           ''] ++ [(importLib {
             # See comments at importLib definition.
@@ -623,10 +623,10 @@ in
               else concatMapStrings (fs: ''
                 zfs load-key -- ${escapeShellArg fs}
               '') (filter (x: datasetToPool x == pool) cfgZfs.requestEncryptionCredentials)}
-        '') rootPools));
+        '') rootPools)));
 
         # Systemd in stage 1
-        systemd = {
+        systemd = mkIf config.boot.initrd.systemd.enable {
           packages = [cfgZfs.package];
           services = listToAttrs (map (pool: createImportService {
             inherit pool;
diff --git a/nixos/modules/tasks/network-interfaces-scripted.nix b/nixos/modules/tasks/network-interfaces-scripted.nix
index da4aa916d655e..e1ac7f24cb320 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/tasks/network-interfaces-scripted.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/tasks/network-interfaces-scripted.nix
@@ -28,12 +28,12 @@ let
       SLAVES=$(ip link | grep 'master ${i}' | awk -F: '{print $2}')
       for I in $SLAVES; do
         UPDATED=0
-        ip link set "$I" nomaster
+        ip link set dev "$I" nomaster
       done
       [ "$UPDATED" -eq "1" ] && break
     done
-    ip link set "${i}" down 2>/dev/null || true
-    ip link del "${i}" 2>/dev/null || true
+    ip link set dev "${i}" down 2>/dev/null || true
+    ip link del dev "${i}" 2>/dev/null || true
   '';
 
   # warn that these attributes are deprecated (2017-2-2)
@@ -193,7 +193,7 @@ let
                 state="/run/nixos/network/addresses/${i.name}"
                 mkdir -p $(dirname "$state")
 
-                ip link set "${i.name}" up
+                ip link set dev "${i.name}" up
 
                 ${flip concatMapStrings ips (ip:
                   let
@@ -270,7 +270,7 @@ let
               ip tuntap add dev "${i.name}" mode "${i.virtualType}" user "${i.virtualOwner}"
             '';
             postStop = ''
-              ip link del ${i.name} || true
+              ip link del dev ${i.name} || true
             '';
           };
 
@@ -291,15 +291,15 @@ let
             script = ''
               # Remove Dead Interfaces
               echo "Removing old bridge ${n}..."
-              ip link show dev "${n}" >/dev/null 2>&1 && ip link del "${n}"
+              ip link show dev "${n}" >/dev/null 2>&1 && ip link del dev "${n}"
 
               echo "Adding bridge ${n}..."
               ip link add name "${n}" type bridge
 
               # Enslave child interfaces
               ${flip concatMapStrings v.interfaces (i: ''
-                ip link set "${i}" master "${n}"
-                ip link set "${i}" up
+                ip link set dev "${i}" master "${n}"
+                ip link set dev "${i}" up
               '')}
               # Save list of enslaved interfaces
               echo "${flip concatMapStrings v.interfaces (i: ''
@@ -316,7 +316,7 @@ let
                     for uri in qemu:///system lxc:///; do
                       for dom in $(${pkgs.libvirt}/bin/virsh -c $uri list --name); do
                         ${pkgs.libvirt}/bin/virsh -c $uri dumpxml "$dom" | \
-                        ${pkgs.xmlstarlet}/bin/xmlstarlet sel -t -m "//domain/devices/interface[@type='bridge'][source/@bridge='${n}'][target/@dev]" -v "concat('ip link set ',target/@dev,' master ',source/@bridge,';')" | \
+                        ${pkgs.xmlstarlet}/bin/xmlstarlet sel -t -m "//domain/devices/interface[@type='bridge'][source/@bridge='${n}'][target/@dev]" -v "concat('ip link set dev ',target/@dev,' master ',source/@bridge,';')" | \
                         ${pkgs.bash}/bin/bash
                       done
                     done
@@ -328,23 +328,23 @@ let
                 echo 2 >/sys/class/net/${n}/bridge/stp_state
               ''}
 
-              ip link set "${n}" up
+              ip link set dev "${n}" up
             '';
             postStop = ''
-              ip link set "${n}" down || true
-              ip link del "${n}" || true
+              ip link set dev "${n}" down || true
+              ip link del dev "${n}" || true
               rm -f /run/${n}.interfaces
             '';
             reload = ''
               # Un-enslave child interfaces (old list of interfaces)
               for interface in `cat /run/${n}.interfaces`; do
-                ip link set "$interface" nomaster up
+                ip link set dev "$interface" nomaster up
               done
 
               # Enslave child interfaces (new list of interfaces)
               ${flip concatMapStrings v.interfaces (i: ''
-                ip link set "${i}" master "${n}"
-                ip link set "${i}" up
+                ip link set dev "${i}" master "${n}"
+                ip link set dev "${i}" up
               '')}
               # Save list of enslaved interfaces
               echo "${flip concatMapStrings v.interfaces (i: ''
@@ -395,7 +395,7 @@ let
             postStop = ''
               echo "Cleaning Open vSwitch ${n}"
               echo "Shutting down internal ${n} interface"
-              ip link set ${n} down || true
+              ip link set dev ${n} down || true
               echo "Deleting flows for ${n}"
               ovs-ofctl --protocols=${v.openFlowVersion} del-flows ${n} || true
               echo "Deleting Open vSwitch ${n}"
@@ -433,10 +433,10 @@ let
               while [ ! -d "/sys/class/net/${n}" ]; do sleep 0.1; done;
 
               # Bring up the bond and enslave the specified interfaces
-              ip link set "${n}" up
+              ip link set dev "${n}" up
               ${flip concatMapStrings v.interfaces (i: ''
-                ip link set "${i}" down
-                ip link set "${i}" master "${n}"
+                ip link set dev "${i}" down
+                ip link set dev "${i}" master "${n}"
               '')}
             '';
             postStop = destroyBond n;
@@ -457,13 +457,13 @@ let
             path = [ pkgs.iproute2 ];
             script = ''
               # Remove Dead Interfaces
-              ip link show dev "${n}" >/dev/null 2>&1 && ip link delete "${n}"
+              ip link show dev "${n}" >/dev/null 2>&1 && ip link delete dev "${n}"
               ip link add link "${v.interface}" name "${n}" type macvlan \
                 ${optionalString (v.mode != null) "mode ${v.mode}"}
-              ip link set "${n}" up
+              ip link set dev "${n}" up
             '';
             postStop = ''
-              ip link delete "${n}" || true
+              ip link delete dev "${n}" || true
             '';
           });
 
@@ -515,7 +515,7 @@ let
             path = [ pkgs.iproute2 ];
             script = ''
               # Remove Dead Interfaces
-              ip link show dev "${n}" >/dev/null 2>&1 && ip link delete "${n}"
+              ip link show dev "${n}" >/dev/null 2>&1 && ip link delete dev "${n}"
               ip link add name "${n}" type sit \
                 ${optionalString (v.remote != null) "remote \"${v.remote}\""} \
                 ${optionalString (v.local != null) "local \"${v.local}\""} \
@@ -526,10 +526,10 @@ let
                     optionalString (v.encapsulation.sourcePort != null)
                       "encap-sport ${toString v.encapsulation.sourcePort}"
                   }"}
-              ip link set "${n}" up
+              ip link set dev "${n}" up
             '';
             postStop = ''
-              ip link delete "${n}" || true
+              ip link delete dev "${n}" || true
             '';
           });
 
@@ -549,16 +549,16 @@ let
             path = [ pkgs.iproute2 ];
             script = ''
               # Remove Dead Interfaces
-              ip link show dev "${n}" >/dev/null 2>&1 && ip link delete "${n}"
+              ip link show dev "${n}" >/dev/null 2>&1 && ip link delete dev "${n}"
               ip link add name "${n}" type ${v.type} \
                 ${optionalString (v.remote != null) "remote \"${v.remote}\""} \
                 ${optionalString (v.local != null) "local \"${v.local}\""} \
                 ${optionalString (v.ttl != null) "${ttlarg} ${toString v.ttl}"} \
                 ${optionalString (v.dev != null) "dev \"${v.dev}\""}
-              ip link set "${n}" up
+              ip link set dev "${n}" up
             '';
             postStop = ''
-              ip link delete "${n}" || true
+              ip link delete dev "${n}" || true
             '';
           });
 
@@ -577,17 +577,17 @@ let
             path = [ pkgs.iproute2 ];
             script = ''
               # Remove Dead Interfaces
-              ip link show dev "${n}" >/dev/null 2>&1 && ip link delete "${n}"
+              ip link show dev "${n}" >/dev/null 2>&1 && ip link delete dev "${n}"
               ip link add link "${v.interface}" name "${n}" type vlan id "${toString v.id}"
 
               # We try to bring up the logical VLAN interface. If the master
               # interface the logical interface is dependent upon is not up yet we will
               # fail to immediately bring up the logical interface. The resulting logical
               # interface will brought up later when the master interface is up.
-              ip link set "${n}" up || true
+              ip link set dev "${n}" up || true
             '';
             postStop = ''
-              ip link delete "${n}" || true
+              ip link delete dev "${n}" || true
             '';
           });
 
diff --git a/nixos/modules/tasks/network-interfaces-systemd.nix b/nixos/modules/tasks/network-interfaces-systemd.nix
index cee23eb244067..2009c9a7e6e28 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/tasks/network-interfaces-systemd.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/tasks/network-interfaces-systemd.nix
@@ -442,7 +442,7 @@ in
             postStop = ''
               echo "Cleaning Open vSwitch ${n}"
               echo "Shutting down internal ${n} interface"
-              ip link set ${n} down || true
+              ip link set dev ${n} down || true
               echo "Deleting flows for ${n}"
               ovs-ofctl --protocols=${v.openFlowVersion} del-flows ${n} || true
               echo "Deleting Open vSwitch ${n}"
diff --git a/nixos/modules/tasks/network-interfaces.nix b/nixos/modules/tasks/network-interfaces.nix
index a0e8e5d47a604..d976f9951bb55 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/tasks/network-interfaces.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/tasks/network-interfaces.nix
@@ -1410,7 +1410,7 @@ in
       wantedBy = [ "sysinit.target" ];
       before = [ "sysinit.target" ];
       unitConfig.DefaultDependencies = false;
-      serviceConfig.ExecStart = ''domainname "${cfg.domain}"'';
+      serviceConfig.ExecStart = ''${pkgs.nettools}/bin/domainname "${cfg.domain}"'';
     };
 
     environment.etc.hostid = mkIf (cfg.hostId != null) { source = hostidFile; };
diff --git a/nixos/modules/tasks/swraid.nix b/nixos/modules/tasks/swraid.nix
index 61b3682e0f68e..249755bc0548c 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/tasks/swraid.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/tasks/swraid.nix
@@ -62,13 +62,13 @@ in {
         cp -v ${pkgs.mdadm}/lib/udev/rules.d/*.rules $out/
       '';
 
-      extraUtilsCommands = ''
+      extraUtilsCommands = lib.mkIf (!config.boot.initrd.systemd.enable) ''
         # Add RAID mdadm tool.
         copy_bin_and_libs ${pkgs.mdadm}/sbin/mdadm
         copy_bin_and_libs ${pkgs.mdadm}/sbin/mdmon
       '';
 
-      extraUtilsCommandsTest = ''
+      extraUtilsCommandsTest = lib.mkIf (!config.boot.initrd.systemd.enable) ''
         $out/bin/mdadm --version
       '';
 
diff --git a/nixos/modules/virtualisation/incus.nix b/nixos/modules/virtualisation/incus.nix
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..3a4f0d7157a07
--- /dev/null
+++ b/nixos/modules/virtualisation/incus.nix
@@ -0,0 +1,236 @@
+{ config, lib, pkgs, ... }:
+
+let
+  cfg = config.virtualisation.incus;
+  preseedFormat = pkgs.formats.yaml { };
+in
+{
+  meta.maintainers = [ lib.maintainers.adamcstephens ];
+
+  options = {
+    virtualisation.incus = {
+      enable = lib.mkEnableOption (lib.mdDoc ''
+        incusd, a daemon that manages containers and virtual machines.
+
+        Users in the "incus-admin" group can interact with
+        the daemon (e.g. to start or stop containers) using the
+        {command}`incus` command line tool, among others.
+      '');
+
+      package = lib.mkPackageOptionMD pkgs "incus" { };
+
+      lxcPackage = lib.mkPackageOptionMD pkgs "lxc" { };
+
+      preseed = lib.mkOption {
+        type = lib.types.nullOr (
+          lib.types.submodule { freeformType = preseedFormat.type; }
+        );
+
+        default = null;
+
+        description = lib.mdDoc ''
+          Configuration for Incus preseed, see
+          <https://linuxcontainers.org/incus/docs/main/howto/initialize/#non-interactive-configuration>
+          for supported values.
+
+          Changes to this will be re-applied to Incus which will overwrite existing entities or create missing ones,
+          but entities will *not* be removed by preseed.
+        '';
+
+        example = {
+          networks = [
+            {
+              name = "incusbr0";
+              type = "bridge";
+              config = {
+                "ipv4.address" = "10.0.100.1/24";
+                "ipv4.nat" = "true";
+              };
+            }
+          ];
+          profiles = [
+            {
+              name = "default";
+              devices = {
+                eth0 = {
+                  name = "eth0";
+                  network = "incusbr0";
+                  type = "nic";
+                };
+                root = {
+                  path = "/";
+                  pool = "default";
+                  size = "35GiB";
+                  type = "disk";
+                };
+              };
+            }
+          ];
+          storage_pools = [
+            {
+              name = "default";
+              driver = "dir";
+              config = {
+                source = "/var/lib/incus/storage-pools/default";
+              };
+            }
+          ];
+        };
+      };
+
+      socketActivation = lib.mkEnableOption (
+        lib.mdDoc ''
+          socket-activation for starting incus.service. Enabling this option
+          will stop incus.service from starting automatically on boot.
+        ''
+      );
+
+      startTimeout = lib.mkOption {
+        type = lib.types.ints.unsigned;
+        default = 600;
+        apply = toString;
+        description = lib.mdDoc ''
+          Time to wait (in seconds) for incusd to become ready to process requests.
+          If incusd does not reply within the configured time, `incus.service` will be
+          considered failed and systemd will attempt to restart it.
+        '';
+      };
+    };
+  };
+
+  config = lib.mkIf cfg.enable {
+    # https://github.com/lxc/incus/blob/f145309929f849b9951658ad2ba3b8f10cbe69d1/doc/reference/server_settings.md
+    boot.kernel.sysctl = {
+      "fs.aio-max-nr" = lib.mkDefault 524288;
+      "fs.inotify.max_queued_events" = lib.mkDefault 1048576;
+      "fs.inotify.max_user_instances" = lib.mkOverride 1050 1048576; # override in case conflict nixos/modules/services/x11/xserver.nix
+      "fs.inotify.max_user_watches" = lib.mkOverride 1050 1048576; # override in case conflict nixos/modules/services/x11/xserver.nix
+      "kernel.dmesg_restrict" = lib.mkDefault 1;
+      "kernel.keys.maxbytes" = lib.mkDefault 2000000;
+      "kernel.keys.maxkeys" = lib.mkDefault 2000;
+      "net.core.bpf_jit_limit" = lib.mkDefault 1000000000;
+      "net.ipv4.neigh.default.gc_thresh3" = lib.mkDefault 8192;
+      "net.ipv6.neigh.default.gc_thresh3" = lib.mkDefault 8192;
+      # vm.max_map_count is set higher in nixos/modules/config/sysctl.nix
+    };
+
+    boot.kernelModules = [
+      "veth"
+      "xt_comment"
+      "xt_CHECKSUM"
+      "xt_MASQUERADE"
+      "vhost_vsock"
+    ] ++ lib.optionals (!config.networking.nftables.enable) [ "iptable_mangle" ];
+
+    environment.systemPackages = [ cfg.package ];
+
+    # Note: the following options are also declared in virtualisation.lxc, but
+    # the latter can't be simply enabled to reuse the formers, because it
+    # does a bunch of unrelated things.
+    systemd.tmpfiles.rules = [ "d /var/lib/lxc/rootfs 0755 root root -" ];
+
+    security.apparmor = {
+      packages = [ cfg.lxcPackage ];
+      policies = {
+        "bin.lxc-start".profile = ''
+          include ${cfg.lxcPackage}/etc/apparmor.d/usr.bin.lxc-start
+        '';
+        "lxc-containers".profile = ''
+          include ${cfg.lxcPackage}/etc/apparmor.d/lxc-containers
+        '';
+      };
+    };
+
+    systemd.services.incus = {
+      description = "Incus Container and Virtual Machine Management Daemon";
+
+      wantedBy = lib.mkIf (!cfg.socketActivation) [ "multi-user.target" ];
+      after = [
+        "network-online.target"
+        "lxcfs.service"
+      ] ++ (lib.optional cfg.socketActivation "incus.socket");
+      requires = [
+        "lxcfs.service"
+      ] ++ (lib.optional cfg.socketActivation "incus.socket");
+      wants = [
+        "network-online.target"
+      ];
+
+      path = lib.mkIf config.boot.zfs.enabled [ config.boot.zfs.package ];
+
+      environment = {
+        # Override Path to the LXC template configuration directory
+        INCUS_LXC_TEMPLATE_CONFIG = "${pkgs.lxcfs}/share/lxc/config";
+      };
+
+      serviceConfig = {
+        ExecStart = "${cfg.package}/bin/incusd --group incus-admin";
+        ExecStartPost = "${cfg.package}/bin/incusd waitready --timeout=${cfg.startTimeout}";
+        ExecStop = "${cfg.package}/bin/incus admin shutdown";
+
+        KillMode = "process"; # when stopping, leave the containers alone
+        Delegate = "yes";
+        LimitMEMLOCK = "infinity";
+        LimitNOFILE = "1048576";
+        LimitNPROC = "infinity";
+        TasksMax = "infinity";
+
+        Restart = "on-failure";
+        TimeoutStartSec = "${cfg.startTimeout}s";
+        TimeoutStopSec = "30s";
+      };
+    };
+
+    systemd.sockets.incus = lib.mkIf cfg.socketActivation {
+      description = "Incus UNIX socket";
+      wantedBy = [ "sockets.target" ];
+
+      socketConfig = {
+        ListenStream = "/var/lib/incus/unix.socket";
+        SocketMode = "0660";
+        SocketGroup = "incus-admin";
+        Service = "incus.service";
+      };
+    };
+
+    systemd.services.incus-preseed = lib.mkIf (cfg.preseed != null) {
+      description = "Incus initialization with preseed file";
+
+      wantedBy = ["incus.service"];
+      after = ["incus.service"];
+      bindsTo = ["incus.service"];
+      partOf = ["incus.service"];
+
+      script = ''
+        ${cfg.package}/bin/incus admin init --preseed <${
+          preseedFormat.generate "incus-preseed.yaml" cfg.preseed
+        }
+      '';
+
+      serviceConfig = {
+        Type = "oneshot";
+        RemainAfterExit = true;
+      };
+    };
+
+    users.groups.incus-admin = { };
+
+    users.users.root = {
+      # match documented default ranges https://linuxcontainers.org/incus/docs/main/userns-idmap/#allowed-ranges
+      subUidRanges = [
+        {
+          startUid = 1000000;
+          count = 1000000000;
+        }
+      ];
+      subGidRanges = [
+        {
+          startGid = 1000000;
+          count = 1000000000;
+        }
+      ];
+    };
+
+    virtualisation.lxc.lxcfs.enable = true;
+  };
+}
diff --git a/nixos/modules/virtualisation/nixos-containers.nix b/nixos/modules/virtualisation/nixos-containers.nix
index aa85665af6952..6fdb177b968b3 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/virtualisation/nixos-containers.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/virtualisation/nixos-containers.nix
@@ -754,7 +754,7 @@ in
                   { services.postgresql.enable = true;
                     services.postgresql.package = pkgs.postgresql_14;
 
-                    system.stateVersion = "21.05";
+                    system.stateVersion = "${lib.trivial.release}";
                   };
               };
           }
@@ -906,4 +906,6 @@ in
       "tun"
     ];
   });
+
+  meta.buildDocsInSandbox = false;
 }
diff --git a/nixos/modules/virtualisation/oci-containers.nix b/nixos/modules/virtualisation/oci-containers.nix
index 71f5d7a752c8c..65e97d53724f2 100644
--- a/nixos/modules/virtualisation/oci-containers.nix
+++ b/nixos/modules/virtualisation/oci-containers.nix
@@ -239,6 +239,26 @@ let
   mkService = name: container: let
     dependsOn = map (x: "${cfg.backend}-${x}.service") container.dependsOn;
     escapedName = escapeShellArg name;
+    preStartScript = pkgs.writeShellApplication {
+      name = "pre-start";
+      runtimeInputs = [ ];
+      text = ''
+        ${cfg.backend} rm -f ${name} || true
+        ${optionalString (isValidLogin container.login) ''
+          cat ${container.login.passwordFile} | \
+          ${cfg.backend} login \
+          ${container.login.registry} \
+          --username ${container.login.username} \
+          --password-stdin
+        ''}
+        ${optionalString (container.imageFile != null) ''
+          ${cfg.backend} load -i ${container.imageFile}
+        ''}
+        ${optionalString (cfg.backend == "podman") ''
+          rm -f /run/podman-${escapedName}.ctr-id
+        ''}
+      '';
+    };
   in {
     wantedBy = [] ++ optional (container.autoStart) "multi-user.target";
     after = lib.optionals (cfg.backend == "docker") [ "docker.service" "docker.socket" ]
@@ -253,23 +273,6 @@ let
       else if cfg.backend == "podman" then [ config.virtualisation.podman.package ]
       else throw "Unhandled backend: ${cfg.backend}";
 
-    preStart = ''
-      ${cfg.backend} rm -f ${name} || true
-      ${optionalString (isValidLogin container.login) ''
-        cat ${container.login.passwordFile} | \
-          ${cfg.backend} login \
-            ${container.login.registry} \
-            --username ${container.login.username} \
-            --password-stdin
-        ''}
-      ${optionalString (container.imageFile != null) ''
-        ${cfg.backend} load -i ${container.imageFile}
-        ''}
-      ${optionalString (cfg.backend == "podman") ''
-        rm -f /run/podman-${escapedName}.ctr-id
-        ''}
-      '';
-
     script = concatStringsSep " \\\n  " ([
       "exec ${cfg.backend} run"
       "--rm"
@@ -318,7 +321,7 @@ let
       ###
       # ExecReload = ...;
       ###
-
+      ExecStartPre = [ "${preStartScript}/bin/pre-start" ];
       TimeoutStartSec = 0;
       TimeoutStopSec = 120;
       Restart = "always";
diff --git a/nixos/release.nix b/nixos/release.nix
index a5909fa7bbdde..2acc5ade7848b 100644
--- a/nixos/release.nix
+++ b/nixos/release.nix
@@ -398,7 +398,7 @@ in rec {
         modules = singleton ({ ... }:
           { fileSystems."/".device  = mkDefault "/dev/sda1";
             boot.loader.grub.device = mkDefault "/dev/sda";
-            system.stateVersion = mkDefault "18.03";
+            system.stateVersion = mkDefault lib.trivial.release;
           });
       }).config.system.build.toplevel;
       preferLocalBuild = true;
diff --git a/nixos/tests/activation/nix-channel.nix b/nixos/tests/activation/nix-channel.nix
index 8416ff0347aca..d26ea98e56cc5 100644
--- a/nixos/tests/activation/nix-channel.nix
+++ b/nixos/tests/activation/nix-channel.nix
@@ -10,7 +10,17 @@
     nix.channel.enable = true;
   };
 
-  testScript = ''
-    print(machine.succeed("cat /root/.nix-channels"))
+  testScript = { nodes, ... }: ''
+    machine.start(allow_reboot=True)
+
+    assert machine.succeed("cat /root/.nix-channels") == "${nodes.machine.system.defaultChannel} nixos\n"
+
+    nixpkgs_unstable_channel = "https://nixos.org/channels/nixpkgs-unstable nixpkgs"
+    machine.succeed(f"echo '{nixpkgs_unstable_channel}' > /root/.nix-channels")
+
+    machine.reboot()
+
+    assert machine.succeed("cat /root/.nix-channels") == f"{nixpkgs_unstable_channel}\n"
   '';
+
 }
diff --git a/nixos/tests/all-tests.nix b/nixos/tests/all-tests.nix
index e047ecd21dbac..6201045b54ccb 100644
--- a/nixos/tests/all-tests.nix
+++ b/nixos/tests/all-tests.nix
@@ -90,6 +90,14 @@ in {
     lib-extend = handleTestOn [ "x86_64-linux" "aarch64-linux" ] ./nixos-test-driver/lib-extend.nix {};
     node-name = runTest ./nixos-test-driver/node-name.nix;
     busybox = runTest ./nixos-test-driver/busybox.nix;
+    driver-timeout = pkgs.runCommand "ensure-timeout-induced-failure" {
+      failed = pkgs.testers.testBuildFailure ((runTest ./nixos-test-driver/timeout.nix).config.rawTestDerivation);
+    } ''
+      grep -F "timeout reached; test terminating" $failed/testBuildFailure.log
+      # The program will always be terminated by SIGTERM (143) if it waits for the deadline thread.
+      [[ 143 = $(cat $failed/testBuildFailure.exit) ]]
+      touch $out
+    '';
   };
 
   # NixOS vm tests and non-vm unit tests
@@ -298,6 +306,7 @@ in {
   forgejo = handleTest ./forgejo.nix { };
   freenet = handleTest ./freenet.nix {};
   freeswitch = handleTest ./freeswitch.nix {};
+  freetube = discoverTests (import ./freetube.nix);
   freshrss-sqlite = handleTest ./freshrss-sqlite.nix {};
   freshrss-pgsql = handleTest ./freshrss-pgsql.nix {};
   frigate = handleTest ./frigate.nix {};
@@ -363,6 +372,7 @@ in {
   honk = runTest ./honk.nix;
   installed-tests = pkgs.recurseIntoAttrs (handleTest ./installed-tests {});
   invidious = handleTest ./invidious.nix {};
+  livebook-service = handleTest ./livebook-service.nix {};
   oci-containers = handleTestOn ["aarch64-linux" "x86_64-linux"] ./oci-containers.nix {};
   odoo = handleTest ./odoo.nix {};
   odoo15 = handleTest ./odoo.nix { package = pkgs.odoo15; };
@@ -384,6 +394,7 @@ in {
   icingaweb2 = handleTest ./icingaweb2.nix {};
   iftop = handleTest ./iftop.nix {};
   incron = handleTest ./incron.nix {};
+  incus = pkgs.recurseIntoAttrs (handleTest ./incus { inherit handleTestOn; });
   influxdb = handleTest ./influxdb.nix {};
   influxdb2 = handleTest ./influxdb2.nix {};
   initrd-network-openvpn = handleTest ./initrd-network-openvpn {};
@@ -563,7 +574,6 @@ in {
   nginx-njs = handleTest ./nginx-njs.nix {};
   nginx-proxyprotocol = handleTest ./nginx-proxyprotocol {};
   nginx-pubhtml = handleTest ./nginx-pubhtml.nix {};
-  nginx-sandbox = handleTestOn ["x86_64-linux"] ./nginx-sandbox.nix {};
   nginx-sso = handleTest ./nginx-sso.nix {};
   nginx-status-page = handleTest ./nginx-status-page.nix {};
   nginx-tmpdir = handleTest ./nginx-tmpdir.nix {};
@@ -582,6 +592,7 @@ in {
   node-red = handleTest ./node-red.nix {};
   nomad = handleTest ./nomad.nix {};
   non-default-filesystems = handleTest ./non-default-filesystems.nix {};
+  non-switchable-system = runTest ./non-switchable-system.nix;
   noto-fonts = handleTest ./noto-fonts.nix {};
   noto-fonts-cjk-qt-default-weight = handleTest ./noto-fonts-cjk-qt-default-weight.nix {};
   novacomd = handleTestOn ["x86_64-linux"] ./novacomd.nix {};
@@ -674,7 +685,6 @@ in {
   predictable-interface-names = handleTest ./predictable-interface-names.nix {};
   printing-socket = handleTest ./printing.nix { socket = true; };
   printing-service = handleTest ./printing.nix { socket = false; };
-  privacyidea = handleTest ./privacyidea.nix {};
   privoxy = handleTest ./privoxy.nix {};
   prometheus = handleTest ./prometheus.nix {};
   prometheus-exporters = handleTest ./prometheus-exporters.nix {};
@@ -753,6 +763,7 @@ in {
   spark = handleTestOn [ "x86_64-linux" "aarch64-linux" ] ./spark {};
   sqlite3-to-mysql = handleTest ./sqlite3-to-mysql.nix {};
   sslh = handleTest ./sslh.nix {};
+  ssh-audit = handleTest ./ssh-audit.nix {};
   sssd = handleTestOn [ "x86_64-linux" "aarch64-linux" ] ./sssd.nix {};
   sssd-ldap = handleTestOn [ "x86_64-linux" "aarch64-linux" ] ./sssd-ldap.nix {};
   stalwart-mail = handleTest ./stalwart-mail.nix {};
diff --git a/nixos/tests/cinnamon.nix b/nixos/tests/cinnamon.nix
index 2a1389231904c..7637b55a2b124 100644
--- a/nixos/tests/cinnamon.nix
+++ b/nixos/tests/cinnamon.nix
@@ -14,27 +14,13 @@ import ./make-test-python.nix ({ pkgs, lib, ... }: {
   testScript = { nodes, ... }:
     let
       user = nodes.machine.users.users.alice;
-      uid = toString user.uid;
-      bus = "DBUS_SESSION_BUS_ADDRESS=unix:path=/run/user/${uid}/bus";
-      display = "DISPLAY=:0.0";
-      env = "${bus} ${display}";
-      gdbus = "${env} gdbus";
+      env = "DBUS_SESSION_BUS_ADDRESS=unix:path=/run/user/${toString user.uid}/bus DISPLAY=:0";
       su = command: "su - ${user.name} -c '${env} ${command}'";
 
       # Call javascript in cinnamon (the shell), returns a tuple (success, output),
       # where `success` is true if the dbus call was successful and `output` is what
       # the javascript evaluates to.
-      eval = "call --session -d org.Cinnamon -o /org/Cinnamon -m org.Cinnamon.Eval";
-
-      # Should be 2 (RunState.RUNNING) when startup is done.
-      # https://github.com/linuxmint/cinnamon/blob/5.4.0/js/ui/main.js#L183-L187
-      getRunState = su "${gdbus} ${eval} Main.runState";
-
-      # Start gnome-terminal.
-      gnomeTerminalCommand = su "gnome-terminal";
-
-      # Hopefully gnome-terminal's wm class.
-      wmClass = su "${gdbus} ${eval} global.display.focus_window.wm_class";
+      eval = name: su "gdbus call --session -d org.Cinnamon -o /org/Cinnamon -m org.Cinnamon.Eval ${name}";
     in
     ''
       machine.wait_for_unit("display-manager.service")
@@ -54,13 +40,43 @@ import ./make-test-python.nix ({ pkgs, lib, ... }: {
 
       with subtest("Wait for the Cinnamon shell"):
           # Correct output should be (true, '2')
-          machine.wait_until_succeeds("${getRunState} | grep -q 'true,..2'")
+          # https://github.com/linuxmint/cinnamon/blob/5.4.0/js/ui/main.js#L183-L187
+          machine.wait_until_succeeds("${eval "Main.runState"} | grep -q 'true,..2'")
+
+      with subtest("Check if Cinnamon components actually start"):
+          for i in ["csd-media-keys", "cinnamon-killer-daemon", "xapp-sn-watcher", "nemo-desktop"]:
+            machine.wait_until_succeeds(f"pgrep -f {i}")
+          machine.wait_until_succeeds("journalctl -b --grep 'Loaded applet menu@cinnamon.org'")
+          machine.wait_until_succeeds("journalctl -b --grep 'calendar@cinnamon.org: Calendar events supported'")
+
+      with subtest("Open Cinnamon Settings"):
+          machine.succeed("${su "cinnamon-settings themes >&2 &"}")
+          machine.wait_until_succeeds("${eval "global.display.focus_window.wm_class"} | grep -i 'cinnamon-settings'")
+          machine.wait_for_text('(Style|Appearance|Color)')
+          machine.sleep(2)
+          machine.screenshot("cinnamon_settings")
+
+      with subtest("Lock the screen"):
+          machine.succeed("${su "cinnamon-screensaver-command -l >&2 &"}")
+          machine.wait_until_succeeds("${su "cinnamon-screensaver-command -q"} | grep 'The screensaver is active'")
+          machine.sleep(2)
+          machine.screenshot("cinnamon_screensaver")
+          machine.send_chars("${user.password}\n", delay=0.2)
+          machine.wait_until_succeeds("${su "cinnamon-screensaver-command -q"} | grep 'The screensaver is inactive'")
+          machine.sleep(2)
 
       with subtest("Open GNOME Terminal"):
-          machine.succeed("${gnomeTerminalCommand}")
-          # Correct output should be (true, '"Gnome-terminal"')
-          machine.wait_until_succeeds("${wmClass} | grep -q 'true,...Gnome-terminal'")
-          machine.sleep(20)
-          machine.screenshot("screen")
+          machine.succeed("${su "gnome-terminal"}")
+          machine.wait_until_succeeds("${eval "global.display.focus_window.wm_class"} | grep -i 'gnome-terminal'")
+          machine.sleep(2)
+
+      with subtest("Open virtual keyboard"):
+          machine.succeed("${su "dbus-send --print-reply --dest=org.Cinnamon /org/Cinnamon org.Cinnamon.ToggleKeyboard"}")
+          machine.wait_for_text('(Ctrl|Alt)')
+          machine.sleep(2)
+          machine.screenshot("cinnamon_virtual_keyboard")
+
+      with subtest("Check if Cinnamon has ever coredumped"):
+          machine.fail("coredumpctl --json=short | grep -E 'cinnamon|nemo'")
     '';
 })
diff --git a/nixos/tests/common/auto-format-root-device.nix b/nixos/tests/common/auto-format-root-device.nix
index 56eecef2f4110..fef8c70049913 100644
--- a/nixos/tests/common/auto-format-root-device.nix
+++ b/nixos/tests/common/auto-format-root-device.nix
@@ -5,19 +5,19 @@
 # `virtualisation.fileSystems."/".autoFormat = true;`
 # instead.
 
-{ config, pkgs, ... }:
+{ lib, config, pkgs, ... }:
 
 let
   rootDevice = config.virtualisation.rootDevice;
 in
 {
 
-  boot.initrd.extraUtilsCommands = ''
+  boot.initrd.extraUtilsCommands = lib.mkIf (!config.boot.initrd.systemd.enable) ''
     # We need mke2fs in the initrd.
     copy_bin_and_libs ${pkgs.e2fsprogs}/bin/mke2fs
   '';
 
-  boot.initrd.postDeviceCommands = ''
+  boot.initrd.postDeviceCommands = lib.mkIf (!config.boot.initrd.systemd.enable) ''
     # If the disk image appears to be empty, run mke2fs to
     # initialise.
     FSTYPE=$(blkid -o value -s TYPE ${rootDevice} || true)
diff --git a/nixos/tests/containers-imperative.nix b/nixos/tests/containers-imperative.nix
index 22b664a90e170..18bec1db78e88 100644
--- a/nixos/tests/containers-imperative.nix
+++ b/nixos/tests/containers-imperative.nix
@@ -21,9 +21,7 @@ import ./make-test-python.nix ({ pkgs, lib, ... }: {
           modules = lib.singleton {
             nixpkgs = { inherit (config.nixpkgs) localSystem; };
 
-            containers.foo.config = {
-              system.stateVersion = "18.03";
-            };
+            containers.foo.config = {};
           };
 
           # The system is inherited from the host above.
diff --git a/nixos/tests/freetube.nix b/nixos/tests/freetube.nix
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..f285384b68e0a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/nixos/tests/freetube.nix
@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+let
+  tests = {
+    wayland = { pkgs, ... }: {
+      imports = [ ./common/wayland-cage.nix ];
+      services.cage.program = "${pkgs.freetube}/bin/freetube";
+      virtualisation.memorySize = 2047;
+      environment.variables.NIXOS_OZONE_WL = "1";
+      environment.variables.DISPLAY = "do not use";
+    };
+    xorg = { pkgs, ... }: {
+      imports = [ ./common/user-account.nix ./common/x11.nix ];
+      virtualisation.memorySize = 2047;
+      services.xserver.enable = true;
+      services.xserver.displayManager.sessionCommands = ''
+        ${pkgs.freetube}/bin/freetube
+      '';
+      test-support.displayManager.auto.user = "alice";
+    };
+  };
+
+  mkTest = name: machine:
+    import ./make-test-python.nix ({ pkgs, ... }: {
+      inherit name;
+      nodes = { "${name}" = machine; };
+      meta.maintainers = with pkgs.lib.maintainers; [ kirillrdy ];
+      enableOCR = true;
+
+      testScript = ''
+        start_all()
+        machine.wait_for_unit('graphical.target')
+        machine.wait_for_text('Your Subscription list is currently empty')
+        machine.send_key("ctrl-r")
+        machine.wait_for_text('Your Subscription list is currently empty')
+        machine.screenshot("main.png")
+        machine.send_key("ctrl-comma")
+        machine.wait_for_text('General Settings', timeout=30)
+        machine.screenshot("preferences.png")
+      '';
+    });
+in
+builtins.mapAttrs (k: v: mkTest k v { }) tests
diff --git a/nixos/tests/incus/container.nix b/nixos/tests/incus/container.nix
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..79b9e2fbabdc7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/nixos/tests/incus/container.nix
@@ -0,0 +1,77 @@
+import ../make-test-python.nix ({ pkgs, lib, ... } :
+
+let
+  releases = import ../../release.nix {
+    configuration = {
+      # Building documentation makes the test unnecessarily take a longer time:
+      documentation.enable = lib.mkForce false;
+    };
+  };
+
+  container-image-metadata = releases.lxdContainerMeta.${pkgs.stdenv.hostPlatform.system};
+  container-image-rootfs = releases.lxdContainerImage.${pkgs.stdenv.hostPlatform.system};
+in
+{
+  name = "incus-container";
+
+  meta.maintainers = with lib.maintainers; [ adamcstephens ];
+
+  nodes.machine = { ... }: {
+    virtualisation = {
+      # Ensure test VM has enough resources for creating and managing guests
+      cores = 2;
+      memorySize = 1024;
+      diskSize = 4096;
+
+      incus.enable = true;
+    };
+  };
+
+  testScript = ''
+    def instance_is_up(_) -> bool:
+        status, _ = machine.execute("incus exec container --disable-stdin --force-interactive /run/current-system/sw/bin/true")
+        return status == 0
+
+    def set_container(config):
+        machine.succeed(f"incus config set container {config}")
+        machine.succeed("incus restart container")
+        with machine.nested("Waiting for instance to start and be usable"):
+          retry(instance_is_up)
+
+    machine.wait_for_unit("incus.service")
+
+    # no preseed should mean no service
+    machine.fail("systemctl status incus-preseed.service")
+
+    machine.succeed("incus admin init --minimal")
+
+    with subtest("Container image can be imported"):
+        machine.succeed("incus image import ${container-image-metadata}/*/*.tar.xz ${container-image-rootfs}/*/*.tar.xz --alias nixos")
+
+    with subtest("Container can be launched and managed"):
+        machine.succeed("incus launch nixos container")
+        with machine.nested("Waiting for instance to start and be usable"):
+          retry(instance_is_up)
+        machine.succeed("echo true | incus exec container /run/current-system/sw/bin/bash -")
+
+    with subtest("Container CPU limits can be managed"):
+        set_container("limits.cpu 1")
+        cpuinfo = machine.succeed("incus exec container grep -- -c ^processor /proc/cpuinfo").strip()
+        assert cpuinfo == "1", f"Wrong number of CPUs reported from /proc/cpuinfo, want: 1, got: {cpuinfo}"
+
+        set_container("limits.cpu 2")
+        cpuinfo = machine.succeed("incus exec container grep -- -c ^processor /proc/cpuinfo").strip()
+        assert cpuinfo == "2", f"Wrong number of CPUs reported from /proc/cpuinfo, want: 2, got: {cpuinfo}"
+
+    with subtest("Container memory limits can be managed"):
+        set_container("limits.memory 64MB")
+        meminfo = machine.succeed("incus exec container grep -- MemTotal /proc/meminfo").strip()
+        meminfo_bytes = " ".join(meminfo.split(' ')[-2:])
+        assert meminfo_bytes == "62500 kB", f"Wrong amount of memory reported from /proc/meminfo, want: '62500 kB', got: '{meminfo_bytes}'"
+
+        set_container("limits.memory 128MB")
+        meminfo = machine.succeed("incus exec container grep -- MemTotal /proc/meminfo").strip()
+        meminfo_bytes = " ".join(meminfo.split(' ')[-2:])
+        assert meminfo_bytes == "125000 kB", f"Wrong amount of memory reported from /proc/meminfo, want: '125000 kB', got: '{meminfo_bytes}'"
+  '';
+})
diff --git a/nixos/tests/incus/default.nix b/nixos/tests/incus/default.nix
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..c88974605e306
--- /dev/null
+++ b/nixos/tests/incus/default.nix
@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+{
+  system ? builtins.currentSystem,
+  config ? { },
+  pkgs ? import ../../.. { inherit system config; },
+  handleTestOn,
+}:
+{
+  container = import ./container.nix { inherit system pkgs; };
+  preseed = import ./preseed.nix { inherit system pkgs; };
+  socket-activated = import ./socket-activated.nix { inherit system pkgs; };
+  virtual-machine = handleTestOn [ "x86_64-linux" ] ./virtual-machine.nix {
+    inherit system pkgs;
+  };
+}
diff --git a/nixos/tests/incus/preseed.nix b/nixos/tests/incus/preseed.nix
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..47b2d0cd62284
--- /dev/null
+++ b/nixos/tests/incus/preseed.nix
@@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
+import ../make-test-python.nix ({ pkgs, lib, ... } :
+
+{
+  name = "incus-preseed";
+
+  meta.maintainers = with lib.maintainers; [ adamcstephens ];
+
+  nodes.machine = { lib, ... }: {
+    virtualisation = {
+      incus.enable = true;
+
+      incus.preseed = {
+        networks = [
+          {
+            name = "nixostestbr0";
+            type = "bridge";
+            config = {
+              "ipv4.address" = "10.0.100.1/24";
+              "ipv4.nat" = "true";
+            };
+          }
+        ];
+        profiles = [
+          {
+            name = "nixostest_default";
+            devices = {
+              eth0 = {
+                name = "eth0";
+                network = "nixostestbr0";
+                type = "nic";
+              };
+              root = {
+                path = "/";
+                pool = "default";
+                size = "35GiB";
+                type = "disk";
+              };
+            };
+          }
+        ];
+        storage_pools = [
+          {
+            name = "nixostest_pool";
+            driver = "dir";
+          }
+        ];
+      };
+    };
+  };
+
+  testScript = ''
+    machine.wait_for_unit("incus.service")
+    machine.wait_for_unit("incus-preseed.service")
+
+    with subtest("Verify preseed resources created"):
+      machine.succeed("incus profile show nixostest_default")
+      machine.succeed("incus network info nixostestbr0")
+      machine.succeed("incus storage show nixostest_pool")
+  '';
+})
diff --git a/nixos/tests/incus/socket-activated.nix b/nixos/tests/incus/socket-activated.nix
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..4d25b26a15f5d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/nixos/tests/incus/socket-activated.nix
@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+import ../make-test-python.nix ({ pkgs, lib, ... } :
+
+{
+  name = "incus-socket-activated";
+
+  meta.maintainers = with lib.maintainers; [ adamcstephens ];
+
+  nodes.machine = { lib, ... }: {
+    virtualisation = {
+      incus.enable = true;
+      incus.socketActivation = true;
+    };
+  };
+
+  testScript = ''
+    machine.wait_for_unit("incus.socket")
+
+    # ensure service is not running by default
+    machine.fail("systemctl is-active incus.service")
+    machine.fail("systemctl is-active incus-preseed.service")
+
+    # access the socket and ensure the service starts
+    machine.succeed("incus list")
+    machine.wait_for_unit("incus.service")
+  '';
+})
diff --git a/nixos/tests/incus/virtual-machine.nix b/nixos/tests/incus/virtual-machine.nix
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..bfa116679d43b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/nixos/tests/incus/virtual-machine.nix
@@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
+import ../make-test-python.nix ({ pkgs, lib, ... }:
+
+let
+  releases = import ../../release.nix {
+    configuration = {
+      # Building documentation makes the test unnecessarily take a longer time:
+      documentation.enable = lib.mkForce false;
+
+      # Our tests require `grep` & friends:
+      environment.systemPackages = with pkgs; [busybox];
+    };
+  };
+
+  vm-image-metadata = releases.lxdVirtualMachineImageMeta.${pkgs.stdenv.hostPlatform.system};
+  vm-image-disk = releases.lxdVirtualMachineImage.${pkgs.stdenv.hostPlatform.system};
+
+  instance-name = "instance1";
+in
+{
+  name = "incus-virtual-machine";
+
+  meta.maintainers = with lib.maintainers; [ adamcstephens ];
+
+  nodes.machine = {...}: {
+    virtualisation = {
+      # Ensure test VM has enough resources for creating and managing guests
+      cores = 2;
+      memorySize = 1024;
+      diskSize = 4096;
+
+      incus.enable = true;
+    };
+  };
+
+  testScript = ''
+    def instance_is_up(_) -> bool:
+      status, _ = machine.execute("incus exec ${instance-name} --disable-stdin --force-interactive /run/current-system/sw/bin/true")
+      return status == 0
+
+    machine.wait_for_unit("incus.service")
+
+    machine.succeed("incus admin init --minimal")
+
+    with subtest("virtual-machine image can be imported"):
+        machine.succeed("incus image import ${vm-image-metadata}/*/*.tar.xz ${vm-image-disk}/nixos.qcow2 --alias nixos")
+
+    with subtest("virtual-machine can be launched and become available"):
+        machine.succeed("incus launch nixos ${instance-name} --vm --config limits.memory=512MB --config security.secureboot=false")
+        with machine.nested("Waiting for instance to start and be usable"):
+          retry(instance_is_up)
+
+    with subtest("lxd-agent is started"):
+        machine.succeed("incus exec ${instance-name} systemctl is-active lxd-agent")
+  '';
+})
diff --git a/nixos/tests/installer-systemd-stage-1.nix b/nixos/tests/installer-systemd-stage-1.nix
index 608a21ef63723..1b4c92b584b95 100644
--- a/nixos/tests/installer-systemd-stage-1.nix
+++ b/nixos/tests/installer-systemd-stage-1.nix
@@ -8,6 +8,8 @@
   # them when fixed.
   inherit (import ./installer.nix { inherit system config pkgs; systemdStage1 = true; })
     # bcache
+    bcachefsSimple
+    bcachefsEncrypted
     btrfsSimple
     btrfsSubvolDefault
     btrfsSubvolEscape
diff --git a/nixos/tests/installer.nix b/nixos/tests/installer.nix
index 15ece034898a7..1baa4396424fb 100644
--- a/nixos/tests/installer.nix
+++ b/nixos/tests/installer.nix
@@ -937,6 +937,10 @@ in {
     enableOCR = true;
     preBootCommands = ''
       machine.start()
+      # Enter it wrong once
+      machine.wait_for_text("enter passphrase for ")
+      machine.send_chars("wrong\n")
+      # Then enter it right.
       machine.wait_for_text("enter passphrase for ")
       machine.send_chars("password\n")
     '';
diff --git a/nixos/tests/keymap.nix b/nixos/tests/keymap.nix
index 0e160269304b1..e8973a50f8524 100644
--- a/nixos/tests/keymap.nix
+++ b/nixos/tests/keymap.nix
@@ -213,7 +213,7 @@ in pkgs.lib.mapAttrs mkKeyboardTest {
 
     extraConfig.console.useXkbConfig = true;
     extraConfig.services.xserver.xkb.layout = "us-greek";
-    extraConfig.services.xserver.extraLayouts.us-greek =
+    extraConfig.services.xserver.xkb.extraLayouts.us-greek =
       { description = "US layout with alt-gr greek";
         languages   = [ "eng" ];
         symbolsFile = pkgs.writeText "us-greek" ''
diff --git a/nixos/tests/livebook-service.nix b/nixos/tests/livebook-service.nix
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..9397e3cb75ffa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/nixos/tests/livebook-service.nix
@@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
+import ./make-test-python.nix ({ lib, pkgs, ... }: {
+  name = "livebook-service";
+
+  nodes = {
+    machine = { config, pkgs, ... }: {
+      imports = [
+        ./common/user-account.nix
+      ];
+
+      services.livebook = {
+        enableUserService = true;
+        port = 20123;
+        environmentFile = pkgs.writeText "livebook.env" ''
+          LIVEBOOK_PASSWORD = "xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx";
+        '';
+        options = {
+          cookie = "chocolate chip";
+        };
+      };
+    };
+  };
+
+  testScript = { nodes, ... }:
+    let
+      user = nodes.machine.config.users.users.alice;
+      sudo = lib.concatStringsSep " " [
+        "XDG_RUNTIME_DIR=/run/user/${toString user.uid}"
+        "sudo"
+        "--preserve-env=XDG_RUNTIME_DIR"
+        "-u"
+        "alice"
+      ];
+    in
+    ''
+      machine.wait_for_unit("multi-user.target")
+
+      machine.succeed("loginctl enable-linger alice")
+      machine.wait_until_succeeds("${sudo} systemctl --user is-active livebook.service")
+      machine.wait_for_open_port(20123)
+
+      machine.succeed("curl -L localhost:20123 | grep 'Type password'")
+    '';
+})
diff --git a/nixos/tests/netdata.nix b/nixos/tests/netdata.nix
index c5f7294f79abc..e3438f63404e7 100644
--- a/nixos/tests/netdata.nix
+++ b/nixos/tests/netdata.nix
@@ -30,8 +30,8 @@ import ./make-test-python.nix ({ pkgs, ...} : {
     # check if netdata can read disk ops for root owned processes.
     # if > 0, successful. verifies both netdata working and
     # apps.plugin has elevated capabilities.
-    url = "http://localhost:19999/api/v1/data\?chart=users.pwrites"
-    filter = '[.data[range(10)][.labels | indices("root")[0]]] | add | . > 0'
+    url = "http://localhost:19999/api/v1/data\?chart=user.root_disk_physical_io"
+    filter = '[.data[range(10)][2]] | add | . < 0'
     cmd = f"curl -s {url} | jq -e '{filter}'"
     netdata.wait_until_succeeds(cmd)
 
diff --git a/nixos/tests/nextcloud/basic.nix b/nixos/tests/nextcloud/basic.nix
index b7af6d6d73647..ab1d8353dba0b 100644
--- a/nixos/tests/nextcloud/basic.nix
+++ b/nixos/tests/nextcloud/basic.nix
@@ -37,8 +37,6 @@ in {
         "d /var/lib/nextcloud-data 0750 nextcloud nginx - -"
       ];
 
-      system.stateVersion = "22.11"; # stateVersion >=21.11 to make sure that we use OpenSSL3
-
       services.nextcloud = {
         enable = true;
         datadir = "/var/lib/nextcloud-data";
diff --git a/nixos/tests/nginx-sandbox.nix b/nixos/tests/nginx-sandbox.nix
deleted file mode 100644
index 92ba30a09cf9f..0000000000000
--- a/nixos/tests/nginx-sandbox.nix
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,65 +0,0 @@
-import ./make-test-python.nix ({ pkgs, ... }: {
-  name = "nginx-sandbox";
-  meta = with pkgs.lib.maintainers; {
-    maintainers = [ izorkin ];
-  };
-
-  # This test checks the creation and reading of a file in sandbox mode. Used simple lua script.
-
-  nodes.machine = { pkgs, ... }: {
-    nixpkgs.overlays = [
-      (self: super: {
-        nginx-lua = super.nginx.override {
-          modules = [
-            pkgs.nginxModules.lua
-          ];
-        };
-      })
-    ];
-    services.nginx.enable = true;
-    services.nginx.package = pkgs.nginx-lua;
-    services.nginx.virtualHosts.localhost = {
-      extraConfig = ''
-        location /test1-write {
-          content_by_lua_block {
-            local create = os.execute('${pkgs.coreutils}/bin/mkdir /tmp/test1-read')
-            local create = os.execute('${pkgs.coreutils}/bin/touch /tmp/test1-read/foo.txt')
-            local echo = os.execute('${pkgs.coreutils}/bin/echo worked > /tmp/test1-read/foo.txt')
-          }
-        }
-        location /test1-read {
-          root /tmp;
-        }
-        location /test2-write {
-          content_by_lua_block {
-            local create = os.execute('${pkgs.coreutils}/bin/mkdir /var/web/test2-read')
-            local create = os.execute('${pkgs.coreutils}/bin/touch /var/web/test2-read/bar.txt')
-            local echo = os.execute('${pkgs.coreutils}/bin/echo error-worked > /var/web/test2-read/bar.txt')
-          }
-        }
-        location /test2-read {
-          root /var/web;
-        }
-      '';
-    };
-    users.users.foo.isNormalUser = true;
-  };
-
-  testScript = ''
-    machine.wait_for_unit("nginx")
-    machine.wait_for_open_port(80)
-
-    # Checking write in temporary folder
-    machine.succeed("$(curl -vvv http://localhost/test1-write)")
-    machine.succeed('test "$(curl -fvvv http://localhost/test1-read/foo.txt)" = worked')
-
-    # Checking write in protected folder. In sandbox mode for the nginx service, the folder /var/web is mounted
-    # in read-only mode.
-    machine.succeed("mkdir -p /var/web")
-    machine.succeed("chown nginx:nginx /var/web")
-    machine.succeed("$(curl -vvv http://localhost/test2-write)")
-    assert "404 Not Found" in machine.succeed(
-        "curl -vvv -s http://localhost/test2-read/bar.txt"
-    )
-  '';
-})
diff --git a/nixos/tests/nixos-test-driver/timeout.nix b/nixos/tests/nixos-test-driver/timeout.nix
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..29bd85d2498ea
--- /dev/null
+++ b/nixos/tests/nixos-test-driver/timeout.nix
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+{
+  name = "Test that sleep of 6 seconds fails a timeout of 5 seconds";
+  globalTimeout = 5;
+
+  nodes = {
+    machine = ({ pkgs, ... }: {
+    });
+  };
+
+  testScript = ''
+    start_all()
+    machine.wait_for_unit("multi-user.target")
+    machine.succeed("sleep 6")
+  '';
+}
diff --git a/nixos/tests/non-switchable-system.nix b/nixos/tests/non-switchable-system.nix
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..54bede75453ba
--- /dev/null
+++ b/nixos/tests/non-switchable-system.nix
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+{ lib, ... }:
+
+{
+  name = "non-switchable-system";
+
+  meta.maintainers = with lib.maintainers; [ nikstur ];
+
+  nodes.machine = {
+    system.switch.enable = false;
+  };
+
+  testScript = ''
+    machine.succeed("test ! -e /run/current-system/bin/switch-to-configuration")
+  '';
+}
diff --git a/nixos/tests/openresty-lua.nix b/nixos/tests/openresty-lua.nix
index b177b3c194d78..9e987398f51d7 100644
--- a/nixos/tests/openresty-lua.nix
+++ b/nixos/tests/openresty-lua.nix
@@ -16,6 +16,12 @@ import ./make-test-python.nix ({ pkgs, lib, ... }:
 
     nodes = {
       webserver = { pkgs, lib, ... }: {
+        networking = {
+          extraHosts = ''
+            127.0.0.1 default.test
+            127.0.0.1 sandbox.test
+          '';
+        };
         services.nginx = {
           enable = true;
           package = pkgs.openresty;
@@ -24,7 +30,7 @@ import ./make-test-python.nix ({ pkgs, lib, ... }:
             lua_package_path '${luaPath};;';
           '';
 
-          virtualHosts."default" = {
+          virtualHosts."default.test" = {
             default = true;
             locations."/" = {
               extraConfig = ''
@@ -36,6 +42,33 @@ import ./make-test-python.nix ({ pkgs, lib, ... }:
               '';
             };
           };
+
+          virtualHosts."sandbox.test" = {
+            locations."/test1-write" = {
+              extraConfig = ''
+                content_by_lua_block {
+                  local create = os.execute('${pkgs.coreutils}/bin/mkdir /tmp/test1-read')
+                  local create = os.execute('${pkgs.coreutils}/bin/touch /tmp/test1-read/foo.txt')
+                  local echo = os.execute('${pkgs.coreutils}/bin/echo worked > /tmp/test1-read/foo.txt')
+                }
+              '';
+            };
+            locations."/test1-read" = {
+              root = "/tmp";
+            };
+            locations."/test2-write" = {
+              extraConfig = ''
+                content_by_lua_block {
+                  local create = os.execute('${pkgs.coreutils}/bin/mkdir /var/web/test2-read')
+                  local create = os.execute('${pkgs.coreutils}/bin/touch /var/web/test2-read/bar.txt')
+                  local echo = os.execute('${pkgs.coreutils}/bin/echo error-worked > /var/web/test2-read/bar.txt')
+                }
+              '';
+            };
+            locations."/test2-read" = {
+              root = "/var/web";
+            };
+          };
         };
       };
     };
@@ -51,5 +84,18 @@ import ./make-test-python.nix ({ pkgs, lib, ... }:
           f"curl -w '%{{http_code}}' --head --fail {url}"
         )
         assert http_code.split("\n")[-1] == "200"
+
+        # This test checks the creation and reading of a file in sandbox mode.
+        # Checking write in temporary folder
+        webserver.succeed("$(curl -vvv http://sandbox.test/test1-write)")
+        webserver.succeed('test "$(curl -fvvv http://sandbox.test/test1-read/foo.txt)" = worked')
+        # Checking write in protected folder. In sandbox mode for the nginx service, the folder /var/web is mounted
+        # in read-only mode.
+        webserver.succeed("mkdir -p /var/web")
+        webserver.succeed("chown nginx:nginx /var/web")
+        webserver.succeed("$(curl -vvv http://sandbox.test/test2-write)")
+        assert "404 Not Found" in machine.succeed(
+            "curl -vvv -s http://sandbox.test/test2-read/bar.txt"
+        )
       '';
   })
diff --git a/nixos/tests/openssh.nix b/nixos/tests/openssh.nix
index 88d3e54ee76cb..881eb9d7d91c5 100644
--- a/nixos/tests/openssh.nix
+++ b/nixos/tests/openssh.nix
@@ -82,6 +82,19 @@ in {
         };
       };
 
+    server_allowedusers =
+      { ... }:
+
+      {
+        services.openssh = { enable = true; settings.AllowUsers = [ "alice" "bob" ]; };
+        users.groups = { alice = { }; bob = { }; carol = { }; };
+        users.users = {
+          alice = { isNormalUser = true; group = "alice"; openssh.authorizedKeys.keys = [ snakeOilPublicKey ]; };
+          bob = { isNormalUser = true; group = "bob"; openssh.authorizedKeys.keys = [ snakeOilPublicKey ]; };
+          carol = { isNormalUser = true; group = "carol"; openssh.authorizedKeys.keys = [ snakeOilPublicKey ]; };
+        };
+      };
+
     client =
       { ... }: { };
 
@@ -147,5 +160,23 @@ in {
 
     with subtest("match-rules"):
         server_match_rule.succeed("ss -nlt | grep '127.0.0.1:22'")
+
+    with subtest("allowed-users"):
+        client.succeed(
+            "cat ${snakeOilPrivateKey} > privkey.snakeoil"
+        )
+        client.succeed("chmod 600 privkey.snakeoil")
+        client.succeed(
+            "ssh -o UserKnownHostsFile=/dev/null -o StrictHostKeyChecking=no -i privkey.snakeoil alice@server_allowedusers true",
+            timeout=30
+        )
+        client.succeed(
+            "ssh -o UserKnownHostsFile=/dev/null -o StrictHostKeyChecking=no -i privkey.snakeoil bob@server_allowedusers true",
+            timeout=30
+        )
+        client.fail(
+            "ssh -o UserKnownHostsFile=/dev/null -o StrictHostKeyChecking=no -i privkey.snakeoil carol@server_allowedusers true",
+            timeout=30
+        )
   '';
 })
diff --git a/nixos/tests/postgresql.nix b/nixos/tests/postgresql.nix
index b44849e0a14e5..c0dd24cf6ad2e 100644
--- a/nixos/tests/postgresql.nix
+++ b/nixos/tests/postgresql.nix
@@ -219,8 +219,6 @@ let
 in
   concatMapAttrs (name: package: {
     ${name} = make-postgresql-test name package false;
+    ${name + "-backup-all"} = make-postgresql-test "${name + "-backup-all"}" package true;
     ${name + "-clauses"} = mk-ensure-clauses-test name package;
   }) postgresql-versions
-  // {
-    postgresql_11-backup-all = make-postgresql-test "postgresql_11-backup-all" postgresql-versions.postgresql_11 true;
-  }
diff --git a/nixos/tests/predictable-interface-names.nix b/nixos/tests/predictable-interface-names.nix
index 42183625c7c93..51d5e8ae59b92 100644
--- a/nixos/tests/predictable-interface-names.nix
+++ b/nixos/tests/predictable-interface-names.nix
@@ -36,7 +36,7 @@ in pkgs.lib.listToAttrs (builtins.map ({ predictable, withNetworkd, systemdStage
       networking.useDHCP = !withNetworkd;
 
       # Check if predictable interface names are working in stage-1
-      boot.initrd.postDeviceCommands = script;
+      boot.initrd.postDeviceCommands = lib.mkIf (!systemdStage1) script;
 
       boot.initrd.systemd = lib.mkIf systemdStage1 {
         enable = true;
diff --git a/nixos/tests/privacyidea.nix b/nixos/tests/privacyidea.nix
deleted file mode 100644
index 401ad72c37b72..0000000000000
--- a/nixos/tests/privacyidea.nix
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,43 +0,0 @@
-# Miscellaneous small tests that don't warrant their own VM run.
-
-import ./make-test-python.nix ({ pkgs, ...} : rec {
-  name = "privacyidea";
-  meta = with pkgs.lib.maintainers; {
-    maintainers = [ ];
-  };
-
-  nodes.machine = { ... }: {
-    virtualisation.cores = 2;
-
-    services.privacyidea = {
-      enable = true;
-      secretKey = "$SECRET_KEY";
-      pepper = "$PEPPER";
-      adminPasswordFile = pkgs.writeText "admin-password" "testing";
-      adminEmail = "root@localhost";
-
-      # Don't try this at home!
-      environmentFile = pkgs.writeText "pi-secrets.env" ''
-        SECRET_KEY=testing
-        PEPPER=testing
-      '';
-    };
-    services.nginx = {
-      enable = true;
-      virtualHosts."_".locations."/".extraConfig = ''
-        uwsgi_pass unix:/run/privacyidea/socket;
-      '';
-    };
-  };
-
-  testScript = ''
-    machine.start()
-    machine.wait_for_unit("multi-user.target")
-    machine.succeed("curl --fail http://localhost | grep privacyIDEA")
-    machine.succeed("grep \"SECRET_KEY = 'testing'\" /var/lib/privacyidea/privacyidea.cfg")
-    machine.succeed("grep \"PI_PEPPER = 'testing'\" /var/lib/privacyidea/privacyidea.cfg")
-    machine.succeed(
-        "curl --fail http://localhost/auth -F username=admin -F password=testing | grep token"
-    )
-  '';
-})
diff --git a/nixos/tests/ssh-audit.nix b/nixos/tests/ssh-audit.nix
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..bd6255b8044d9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/nixos/tests/ssh-audit.nix
@@ -0,0 +1,103 @@
+import ./make-test-python.nix (
+  {pkgs, ...}: let
+    sshKeys = import (pkgs.path + "/nixos/tests/ssh-keys.nix") pkgs;
+    sshUsername = "any-user";
+    serverName = "server";
+    clientName = "client";
+    sshAuditPort = 2222;
+  in {
+    name = "ssh";
+
+    nodes = {
+      "${serverName}" = {
+        networking.firewall.allowedTCPPorts = [
+          sshAuditPort
+        ];
+        services.openssh.enable = true;
+        users.users."${sshUsername}" = {
+          isNormalUser = true;
+          openssh.authorizedKeys.keys = [
+            sshKeys.snakeOilPublicKey
+          ];
+        };
+      };
+      "${clientName}" = {
+        programs.ssh = {
+          ciphers = [
+            "aes128-ctr"
+            "aes128-gcm@openssh.com"
+            "aes192-ctr"
+            "aes256-ctr"
+            "aes256-gcm@openssh.com"
+            "chacha20-poly1305@openssh.com"
+          ];
+          extraConfig = ''
+            IdentitiesOnly yes
+          '';
+          hostKeyAlgorithms = [
+            "rsa-sha2-256"
+            "rsa-sha2-256-cert-v01@openssh.com"
+            "rsa-sha2-512"
+            "rsa-sha2-512-cert-v01@openssh.com"
+            "sk-ssh-ed25519-cert-v01@openssh.com"
+            "sk-ssh-ed25519@openssh.com"
+            "ssh-ed25519"
+            "ssh-ed25519-cert-v01@openssh.com"
+          ];
+          kexAlgorithms = [
+            "curve25519-sha256"
+            "curve25519-sha256@libssh.org"
+            "diffie-hellman-group-exchange-sha256"
+            "diffie-hellman-group16-sha512"
+            "diffie-hellman-group18-sha512"
+            "sntrup761x25519-sha512@openssh.com"
+          ];
+          macs = [
+            "hmac-sha2-256-etm@openssh.com"
+            "hmac-sha2-512-etm@openssh.com"
+            "umac-128-etm@openssh.com"
+          ];
+        };
+      };
+    };
+
+    testScript = ''
+      start_all()
+
+      ${serverName}.wait_for_open_port(22)
+
+      # Should pass SSH server audit
+      ${serverName}.succeed("${pkgs.ssh-audit}/bin/ssh-audit 127.0.0.1")
+
+      # Wait for client to be able to connect to the server
+      ${clientName}.wait_for_unit("network-online.target")
+
+      # Set up trusted private key
+      ${clientName}.succeed("cat ${sshKeys.snakeOilPrivateKey} > privkey.snakeoil")
+      ${clientName}.succeed("chmod 600 privkey.snakeoil")
+
+      # Fail fast and disable interactivity
+      ssh_options = "-o BatchMode=yes -o ConnectTimeout=1 -o StrictHostKeyChecking=no -o UserKnownHostsFile=/dev/null"
+
+      # Should deny root user
+      ${clientName}.fail(f"ssh {ssh_options} root@${serverName} true")
+
+      # Should deny non-root user password login
+      ${clientName}.fail(f"ssh {ssh_options} -o PasswordAuthentication=yes ${sshUsername}@${serverName} true")
+
+      # Should allow non-root user certificate login
+      ${clientName}.succeed(f"ssh {ssh_options} -i privkey.snakeoil ${sshUsername}@${serverName} true")
+
+      # Should pass SSH client audit
+      service_name = "ssh-audit.service"
+      ${serverName}.succeed(f"systemd-run --unit={service_name} ${pkgs.ssh-audit}/bin/ssh-audit --client-audit --port=${toString sshAuditPort}")
+      ${clientName}.sleep(5) # We can't use wait_for_open_port because ssh-audit exits as soon as anything talks to it
+      ${clientName}.execute(
+          f"ssh {ssh_options} -i privkey.snakeoil -p ${toString sshAuditPort} ${sshUsername}@${serverName} true",
+          check_return=False,
+          timeout=10
+      )
+      ${serverName}.succeed(f"exit $(systemctl show --property=ExecMainStatus --value {service_name})")
+    '';
+  }
+)
diff --git a/nixos/tests/sslh.nix b/nixos/tests/sslh.nix
index 17094606e8e6b..30ffd389d4422 100644
--- a/nixos/tests/sslh.nix
+++ b/nixos/tests/sslh.nix
@@ -10,21 +10,13 @@ import ./make-test-python.nix {
           prefixLength = 64;
         }
       ];
-      # sslh is really slow when reverse dns does not work
-      networking.hosts = {
-        "fe00:aa:bb:cc::2" = [ "server" ];
-        "fe00:aa:bb:cc::1" = [ "client" ];
-      };
       services.sslh = {
         enable = true;
-        transparent = true;
-        appendConfig = ''
-          protocols:
-          (
-            { name: "ssh"; service: "ssh"; host: "localhost"; port: "22"; probe: "builtin"; },
-            { name: "http"; host: "localhost"; port: "80"; probe: "builtin"; },
-          );
-        '';
+        settings.transparent = true;
+        settings.protocols = [
+          { name = "ssh"; service = "ssh"; host = "localhost"; port = "22"; probe = "builtin"; }
+          { name = "http"; host = "localhost"; port = "80"; probe = "builtin"; }
+        ];
       };
       services.openssh.enable = true;
       users.users.root.openssh.authorizedKeys.keyFiles = [ ./initrd-network-ssh/id_ed25519.pub ];
diff --git a/nixos/tests/xfce.nix b/nixos/tests/xfce.nix
index 2df1a5b6e8c35..9620e9188cbf5 100644
--- a/nixos/tests/xfce.nix
+++ b/nixos/tests/xfce.nix
@@ -66,6 +66,9 @@ import ./make-test-python.nix ({ pkgs, ...} : {
         machine.succeed("su - ${user.name} -c 'DISPLAY=:0 thunar >&2 &'")
         machine.wait_for_window("Thunar")
         machine.wait_for_text('(Pictures|Public|Templates|Videos)')
+
+      with subtest("Check if any coredumps are found"):
+        machine.succeed("(coredumpctl --json=short 2>&1 || true) | grep 'No coredumps found'")
         machine.sleep(10)
         machine.screenshot("screen")
     '';